Monte Carlo simulations; QualiSani; probabilistic risk assessment; risk mitigation strategy
Abstract :
[en] Traditional smoking and grilling in Benin generate high polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) levels. This study aims to evaluate the effect of an improved indirect-heat kiln (QualiSani) on PAHs exposure and health risk. Fifteen PAHs were measured in 46 samples of grilled pork, smoked fish and smoked-dried fish. Deterministic and 10,000-iteration Monte Carlo simulations estimated margin of exposure (MOE) distributions were used to assess the risk for 300 pork consumers and 186 fish consumers. For carcinogenic compounds such as PAHs, in line with European Food Safety Agency guidance, MOE ≥ 10,000 indicates low concern. Thanks to the QualiSani kiln, PAHs levels were reduced to about 98% (for grilled pork) and 99% (for smoked fish and smoked-dried fish). In both deterministic and probabilistic risk assessments, all the MOEs were well above 10,000 except for ∼2% of high-end consumers showing low health concern for human health. In conclusion, the use of the QualiSani kiln in replacement of traditional techniques allows to lower to safe levels the Beninese consumer exposure to PAHs through grilled and smoked food consumption.
Research Center/Unit :
FARAH. Santé publique vétérinaire - ULiège
Disciplines :
Food science
Author, co-author :
Iko Afé, O H ; School of Nutrition, Food Sciences and Technology, Laboratory of Food Sciences and Technology, Faculty of Agronomic Sciences, University of Abomey-Calavi, 03 P.O. Box 2819, Cotonou, Benin, Laboratory of Food Analysis, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health (FARAH), Veterinary Public Health, University of Liège, bât. B43bis, 10 Avenue de Cureghem, Sart-Tilman, B-4000 Liège, Belgium. Electronic address: ikohsoft@gmail.com
Saegerman, Claude ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département des maladies infectieuses et parasitaires (DMI) > Epidémiologie, analyse de risques et biosécurité appliquées aux sciences vétérinaires
Kpoclou, Y E; School of Nutrition, Food Sciences and Technology, Laboratory of Food Sciences and Technology, Faculty of Agronomic Sciences, University of Abomey-Calavi, 03 P.O. Box 2819, Cotonou, Benin
Anihouvi, D G H; School of Nutrition, Food Sciences and Technology, Laboratory of Food Sciences and Technology, Faculty of Agronomic Sciences, University of Abomey-Calavi, 03 P.O. Box 2819, Cotonou, Benin, Earth and Life Institute - Applied Microbiology, Laboratory of Food and Environmental Microbiology, Croix du Sud, 2 - L7.05.12, B-1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
Douny, Caroline ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals and Health (FARAH) > FARAH: Santé publique vétérinaire
Assogba, M F; School of Nutrition, Food Sciences and Technology, Laboratory of Food Sciences and Technology, Faculty of Agronomic Sciences, University of Abomey-Calavi, 03 P.O. Box 2819, Cotonou, Benin
Mahillon, J; Earth and Life Institute - Applied Microbiology, Laboratory of Food and Environmental Microbiology, Croix du Sud, 2 - L7.05.12, B-1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
Anihouvi, V B; School of Nutrition, Food Sciences and Technology, Laboratory of Food Sciences and Technology, Faculty of Agronomic Sciences, University of Abomey-Calavi, 03 P.O. Box 2819, Cotonou, Benin
Hounhouigan, D J; School of Nutrition, Food Sciences and Technology, Laboratory of Food Sciences and Technology, Faculty of Agronomic Sciences, University of Abomey-Calavi, 03 P.O. Box 2819, Cotonou, Benin
Scippo, Marie-Louise ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals and Health (FARAH)
Language :
English
Title :
Reducing Dietary PAHs Exposure from Smoked Fish and Grilled Pork in Benin with the QualiSani Kiln.
Assogba, M.F., Ahouansou, R.H., Djohi, N.O.R., Kpoclou, Y.E., Anihouvi, G.D., Iko Afe, H.O., Tchibozo, B.F., Douny, C., Mahillon, J., Scippo, M.-L., Hounhouigan, D.J., Anihouvi, V.B., 2024. Development of innovative technology reducing the levels of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in grilled meat and smoked fish. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 125, 1-12.
Assogba, M.F., Iko Afe, O.H., Ahouansou, R.H., Anihouvi, D.G.H., Kpoclou, Y.E., Djago, D., Douny, C., Igout, A., Mahillon, J., Hounhouigan, D.J., Scippo, M.-L., Anihouvi, V.B., 2022. Performances of barrel kiln used in cottage industry for fish processing and effects on physicochemical characteristics and safety of smoked fish products. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 102, 851-861
Babic, J., Kartalovic, B.D., Skaljac, S., Vidakovic, S., Ljubojevic, D., Petrovic, J.M., Cirkovic, M.A., Teodorovic, V., 2018. Reduction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in common carp meat smoked in traditional conditions. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part B 11, 208-213.
Bagnan, K.O., Padonou, N., Kodjoh, N., Houansou, T., 1994. Le cancer de l'estomac: A propos de 51 cas observes au CNHU de Cotonou. Medecine d'Afrique Noire 41, 39-43.
Banerjee, M., 2021. The perspective of least developed countries: Limitations and challenges towards achieving universal access to clean cooking fuels and technologies. Observer Research Foundation. https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/least-developed-countries-limitations-challenges-universal-access-clean-cooking-fuels-technologies.
Bomfeh, K., Jacxens, L., Amoa-Awua, W.K., Tandoh, I., Afoakwa, E.O., Gamarro, E.G., Ouadi, Y.D., Meulenaer, B.D., 2019. Reducing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) contamination in smoked fish in the Global South: a case study of an improved kiln in Ghana. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 99, 5417-5423.
Bomfeh, K., Jacxsens, L., Amoa-Awua, W.K., Gamarro, E.G., Ouadi, Y.D., De Meulenaer, B., 2022. Risk Assessment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Smoked Sardinella sp. in Ghana: Impact of an Improved Oven on Public Health Protection. Risk Analysis 42, 1007-1022.
Brasseur, C., Brose, F., Pirlot, A., Douny, C., Eppe, G., Maghuin-Rogister, G., Scippo, M.-L., 2007. Validation of the analytical procedure for the determination of polyaromatic hydrocarbons in smoke flavourings using high performance liquid chromatography coupled to an ultraviolet, diode array or fluorescence detector. Accreditation and Quality Assurance 12, 535-542.
CAC/RCP 68-2009, 2009. Code of practice for the reduction of contamination of food with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) from smoking and direct drying processes, Codex Alimentarius Commission/ Recommended international code of practice, p. 18.
Chaemsai, S., Kunanopparat, T., Srichumpuang, J., Nopharatana, M., Tangduangdee, C., Siriwattanayotin, S., 2016. Reduction of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) content of charcoal smoke during grilling by charcoal preparation using high carbonization and a pre-heating step. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A, 33, 385-390.
Charway, G.N.A., 2023. Profitability and trade-offs in the use of the FAO-Thiaroye processing technique (FTT) in Ghana. Rome, FAO.
Constable, A., Barlow, S., 2009. Application of the Margin of Exposure Approach to Compounds in Food which are both Genotoxic and Carcinogenic Summary Report of a Workshop held in October 2008, Organised by the International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI) Europe Risk Assessment of Genotoxic Carcinogens in Food Task Force. https://ilsi.eu/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2016/06/MOE-WS-Report.pdf
Diop, E.H.M., Ndiaye, B., Sow, A., Sambe, F.M., Sall, M., Thiam, M.S., 2023. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) Contents of Four Species of Smoked Fish from Different Sites in Senegal. International Journal of Analytical Chemistry 2023, 1-9.
EC, 2023. Commission Regulation (EU) 2023/915 of 25 April 2023 on maximum levels for certain contaminants in food and repealing Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006. Official Journal of the European Union, L119, 103-157.
EFSA, 2005. Opinion of the Scientific Committee on a request from EFSA related to A Harmonised Approach for Risk Assessment of Substances Which are both Genotoxic and Carcinogenic. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Journal 282, 1-31.
EFSA, 2008. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in food: Scientific opinion of the panel on contaminants in the food chain. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Journal 724, 1-114.
EFSA, 2025. Statement on the use and interpretation of the margin of exposure approach. EFSA Journal, 1-23.
Eldaly, E.A., Hafez, A.-E.E., Darwish, W.S., El-Hamid, R.M.A., Elmalt, D.F., 2016. Effect of Heat Treatments on Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Formation in Meat. Zagazig Veterinary Journal 44, 263-272.
Essumang, D.K., Dodoo, D.K., Adjei, J.K., 2014. Effective reduction of PAH contamination in smoke cured fish products using charcoal filters in a modified traditional kiln. Food Control 35, 85-93.
FAO, 2006. Contribution of fishery to economy of central and occidental Africa: Public policy aiming to increase resources produced from artisanal fishery. New trend in fishery activities - Serial note of synthesis on development queries, Paper n° 91, Rome. http://www.fao.org/3/a-a0452f.pdf
FAO/WHO [Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/World Health Organization], 2011. FAO/WHO guide for application of risk analysis principles and procedures during food safety emergencies, Rome, p. 52.
Farhadian, A., Jinap, S., Faridah, A., Zaidul, I.S.M., 2012. Effects of marinating on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (benzo[a]pyrene, benzo[b]fluoranthene and fluoranthene) in grilled beef meat. Food Control 28, 420-425.
[GCO] Global Cancer Observatory., 2022. Number of new cases of cancer in 2022: Cancer factsheets. International Agency for Research on Cancer and World Health Organization. Retrieved from https://gco.iarc.who.int/media/globocan/factsheets/populations/204-benin-fact-sheet.pdf
Gomes, A., Santos, C., Almeida, J., Elias, M., Roseiro, L.C., 2013. Effect of fat content, casing type and smoking procedures on PAHs contents of Portuguese traditional dry fermented sausages. Food and Chemical Toxicology 58, 369-374.
IARC, 2010. Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans-Some Non-heterocyclic Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Some Related Exposures, Lyon, France, p. 853.
Ibe, K.K., Kollur, S.P., 2024. Challenges towards the adoption and use of sustainable cooking methods: a comprehensive review. Sustainable Environment 10, 1-18.
Iko Afe, O.H., Saegerman, C., Kpoclou, Y.E., Anihouvi, V.B., Douny, C., Igout, A., Mahillon, J., Hounhouigan, D.J., Scippo, M.-L., 2020. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons contamination of traditionally grilled pork marketed in South Benin and health risk assessment for the Beninese consumer. Food Additives & Contaminants (A) 7, 742-752.
Iko Afe, O.H., Saegerman, C., Kpoclou, Y.E., Douny, C., Igout, A., Mahillon, J., Anihouvi, V.B., Hounhouigan, D.J., Scippo, M.-L., 2021. Contamination of smoked fish and smoked-dried fish with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and biogenic amines and risk assessment for the Beninese consumers. Food Control 126, 1-10.
Ingenbleek, L., Veyrand, B., Adegboye, A., Hossou, S. E., Kone, A. Z., Oyedele, A. D., 2019. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in foods from the first regional total diet study in Sub-Saharan Africa: contamination profile and occurrence data. Food Control 103, 133-144.
IPCS, 2009. Environmental Health Criteria 240: Principles and methods for risk assessments of chemicals in food, pp. 7-21.
Janiszewski, P., Grzeskowiak, E., Lisiak, D., Borys, B., Borzuta, K., Pospiech, E., Polawska, E., 2016. The influence of thermal processing on the fatty acid profile of pork and lamb meat fed diet with increased levels of unsaturated fatty acids. Meat Science 111 161-167.
Kpoclou, E.Y., Anihouvi, V.B., Azokpota, P., Soumanou, M.M., Douny, C., Brose, F., Hounhouigan, D.J., Scippo, M.-L., 2014. Effect of fuel and kiln type on the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) levels in smoked shrimp, a Beninese food condiment. Food Additives & Contaminants 31, 1212-1218.
Ledesma, E., Rendueles, M., Diaz, M., 2015. Characterization of natural and synthetic casings and mechanism of BaP penetration in smoked meat products. Food Control 51, 195-205.
Lee, J.-G., Kim, S.-Y., Moon, J.-S., Kim, S.-H., Kang, D.-H., Yoon, H.-J., 2016. Effects of grilling procedures on levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in grilled meats. Food Chemistry 199, 632-638.
Lu, J., Zhang, Y., Zhou, H., Cai, K., Xu, B., 2024. A review of hazards in meat products: Multiple pathways, hazards and mitigation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Food Chemistry 445, 1-18.
MAEP (Ministere de l’Agriculture, de l’Elevage et de la Peche), 2007. Decree 2007 N°0362/MAEP/D-CAB/SGM/DRH/DP/SA of 30 October 2007 fixing maximum limits for some contaminants in foods of Republic of Benin. Official Journal of Benin Republic. http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/pdf/ben146450.pdf
MAEP (Ministere de l’Agriculture, de l’Elevage et de la Peche), 2009. Decree 2007 N°074/MAEP/D-CAB/SGM/DRH/DP/DE/SA of February 26, 2009 establishing specific rules for the organization of official controls concerning products of animal origin intended for human consumption. Official Journal of Benin Republic. https://agriculture.gouv.bj/abssa/TEST_LEGISLATIVE/290-537.pdf
Mali, A., Laskar, S.K., Muthukumar, M., 2024. Effect of different smoking times and temperatures on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations in smoked sausages. Emirates Journal of Food and Agriculture 36, 1-6.
Ndiaye, O., Sodoke Komivi, B., Y., D.-O., 2014. La technique FAO-Thiaroye de transformation (FTT-Thiaroye), Rome, FAO. 67 p.
OAPI (Organisation Africaine de la Propriete Intellectuelle), 2023. Grilling, smoking and drying device for reducing the level of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contamination of grilled meat, smoked and smoked-dried fish, Invention patent n°20798. Official Industrial Property Bulletin, 2, 21-22. http://www.oapi.int/publication/brevet/2023/bopi-2/22/
Ogwok, o., Naluwagga, A., Abbo, M.S., Tesfamichael, M., 2022. Uganda’s cooking energy sector: A Review. Modern Energy Cooking Service, 1-24.
PALISADE, 2020. @RISK Getting Started Guide, Version 2 - Last Updated 5/15/2020. 1-20.
Park, K.-C., Pyo, H., Kim, W., Yoon, K.S., 2017. Effects of cooking methods and tea marinades on the formation of benzo[a]pyrene in grilled pork belly (Samgyeopsal). Meat Science 129, 1-8.
Parker, J.K., Lignou, S., Shankland, K., Kurwie, P., Griffiths, H.D., Baines, D.A., 2017. Development of a Zeolite Filter for Removing Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons from Smoke and Smoked Ingredients whilst Retaining the Smoky Flavor. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 66 2449-2458.
Rigi, P., Kamani, H., Ansari, H., Mohammadi, L., Dargah, A., 2025. Health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon compounds (PAHs) in grilled meats in Zahedan city of Iran. Scientific Reports 15, 1-21.
Sahin, S., Ulusoy, H.I., Alemdar, S., Erdogan, S., Agaoglu, S., 2020. The Presence of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Grilled Beef, Chicken and Fish by Considering Dietary Exposure and Risk Assessment. Food Sci. Anim. Resour 40, 675-688.
Sinaga, K., Legowo, A.M., Supriatna, E., Pramono, Y.B., 2016. Reduction of benzo(a)pyrene in charcoal grilled duck meat by marinating with andaliman (Zanthoxylum acanthopodium, DC) fruit juice. Journal of the Indonesian Tropical Animal Agriculture 41, 204-208.
Viegas, O., Yebra-Pimentel, I., Martinez-Carballo, E., Simal-Gandara, J., Ferreira, I.M.P.L.V.O., 2014. Effect of beer marinades on formation polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in charcoal-grilled pork. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 62, 2638-2643.
Vigolo, V., Sallaku, R., Testa, F., 2018. Drivers and barriers to clean cooking: a systematic literature review from a consumer behavior perspective. Sustainability 10, 1-21.
Wang, C., Xie, Y., Qi, J., Yu, Y., Bai, Y., Dai, C., Li, C., Xu, X., Zhou, G., 2018. Effect of Tea Marinades on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in charcoal-grilled chicken wings. Food Control 93, 325-333.
Wang, Z., Ng, K., Warner, R.D., Stockmann, R., Fang, Z., 2022. Reduction strategies for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in processed foods. Comprehensive Review in Food Science and Food Safety 21, 1598-1626.
Yu, Y., Cheng, Y., Wang, C., Huang, S., Lei, Y., Huang, M., Zhang, X., 2023. Inhibitory effect of coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) extract marinades on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in roasted duck wings. Food Science and Human Wellness 12, 1128-1135.
Zastrow, L., Albert, C., Speer, K., Schwind, K.-H., Jira, W., 2023. Formation of pyrolysis-affected PAHs, oxygenated PAHs and MCPDs in home smoked meat. LWT - Food Science and Technology 184, 1-8.
