Impact of anthropized river hydrodynamic conditions on the downstream migration of Atlantic salmon smolts

[en] Knowledge gaps persist regarding the influence of river hydrodynamics (e.g., flow velocity, depth, temperature, pressure) on the seaward migration of young Atlantic salmon (smolts). These gaps are reflected in rivers by the reduction of safe migration routes for salmons caused by the artificial flow alteration from hydraulic structures such as dams. The situation has long contributed to the disappearance of Atlantic salmon in many rivers and hinders their sustainable reintroduction. To better understand the hydrodynamic factors influencing smolt migration speeds, this study examines the downstream migrations of 491 hatchery smolts over three years (2017, 2021, and 2023) characterized by contrasting hydrological conditions and distinct flow patterns. The study covers 82 km of the Meuse River in Belgium, where smolts crossed six reaches delimited by movable weirs. Smolt trajectories were tracked using acoustic telemetry from 12 detection sites. A one-dimensional hydrodynamic model calculated the water velocities encountered by smolts, while water temperature and the diurnal pattern were also monitored. The results confirm the positive correlation between flow velocities and smolt migration speeds suggested in the literature. Flow velocities below one body length per second (approximately 0.15 m/s) disorient smolts. However, smolts slowed at relatively high velocities, as shown by the negative correlation between flow velocities and relative migration speeds. Additionally, migration speed increased with distance travelled and daytime but decreased with water temperature. These findings pave the way for the implementation of more science-based environmental flow conditions in human-altered rivers during the migration season of smolts.

Research Center/Unit :

UEE - Urban and Environmental Engineering - ULiège
FOCUS - Freshwater and OCeanic science Unit of reSearch - ULiège

Disciplines :

Civil engineering
Engineering, computing & technology: Multidisciplinary, general & others

Author, co-author :

Utashi Ciraane, Docile ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Urban and Environmental Engineering

Sonny, Damien ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département des sciences et gestion de l'environnement (Arlon Campus Environnement) > Laboratoire de Démographie des poissons et hydroécologie ; PROFISH

Lerquet, Marc ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Freshwater and OCeanic science Unit of reSearch (FOCUS) ; PROFISH

Archambeau, Pierre ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département ArGEnCo > HECE (Hydraulics in Environnemental and Civil Engineering)

Dewals, Benjamin ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département ArGEnCo > Hydraulics in Environmental and Civil Engineering

Pirotton, Michel ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département ArGEnCo > HECE (Hydraulics in Environnemental and Civil Engineering)

Sacré, Pierre ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département d'électricité, électronique et informatique (Institut Montefiore) > Robotique intelligente

Benitez, Jean-Philippe ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Freshwater and OCeanic science Unit of reSearch (FOCUS)

Ovidio, Michaël ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Freshwater and OCeanic science Unit of reSearch (FOCUS)

Erpicum, Sébastien ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Urban and Environmental Engineering

Language :

English

Title :

Impact of anthropized river hydrodynamic conditions on the downstream migration of Atlantic salmon smolts

Publication date :

26 March 2025

Journal title :

Science of the Total Environment

ISSN :

0048-9697

eISSN :

1879-1026

Publisher :

Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands

Peer reviewed :

Peer Reviewed verified by ORBi

Development Goals :

14. Life below water
7. Affordable and clean energy

Name of the research project :

LIFE4FISH

Funders :

F.R.S.-FNRS - Fund for Scientific Research

Funding number :

1.A.091.24F; LIFE16/NAT/ BE/000807

Available on ORBi :

since 29 April 2025

Statistics

Number of views

165 (31 by ULiège)

Number of downloads

36 (8 by ULiège)

More statistics

Scopus citations^®

Scopus citations^®
without self-citations

OpenCitations

OpenAlex citations

Bibliography

Aldvén, D., Hedger, R., Økland, F., Rivinoja, P., Höjesjö, J., Migration speed, routes, and mortality rates of anadromous brown trout Salmo trutta during outward migration through a complex coastal habitat. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 541 (2015), 151–163, 10.3354/meps11535.
Archambeau, P., Erpicum, S., Dewals, B., Pirotton, M., WOLF software. https://wolf.hece.uliege.be/, 2024.
Ashraf, M.U., Nyqvist, D., Comoglio, C., Nikora, V., Marion, A., Domenici, P., Manes, C., Decoding burst swimming performance: a scaling perspective on time-to-fatigue. J. R. Soc. Interface, 21(219), 2024, 20240276, 10.1098/rsif.2024.0276.
Ben Ammar, I., Baeklandt, S., Cornet, V., Antipine, S., Sonny, D., Mandiki, S.N.M., Kestemont, P., Passage through a hydropower plant affects the physiological and health status of Atlantic salmon smolts. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A Mol. Integr. Physiol., 247, 2020, 110745, 10.1016/j.cbpa.2020.110745.
Ben Jebria, N., Carmigniani, R., Drouineau, H., De Oliveira, E., Tétard, S., Capra, H., Coupling 3D hydraulic simulation and fish telemetry data to characterize the behaviour of migrating smolts approaching a bypass. J. Ecohydraul. 8:2 (2023), 144–157, 10.1080/24705357.2021.1978345.
Benitez, J.-P., Dierckx, A., Rimbaud, G., Nzau Matondo, B., Renardy, S., Rollin, X., Gillet, A., Dumonceau, F., Poncin, P., Philippart, J.-C., Ovidio, M., Assessment of fish abundance, biodiversity and movement periodicity changes in a large river over a 20-year period. Environments, 9(2), Article 2, 2022, 10.3390/environments9020022.
Benitez, J.-P., Dierckx, A., Caparros Megido, R., Renardy, S., Vom Berge, C., P, H., Géraldine, J., Gelder, J., Nzau Matondo, B., Philippart, J.-C., & Ovidio, M. (2024). Subvention d'etude relative a la rehabilitation du Saumon atlantique dans le bassin de la meuse. Rapport final février 2023—Janvier 2024. https://orbi.uliege.be/handle/2268/318403.
Bjerck, H.B., Urke, H.A., Haugen, T.O., Alfredsen, J.A., Ulvund, J.B., Kristensen, T., Synchrony and multimodality in the timing of Atlantic salmon smolt migration in two Norwegian fjords. Sci. Rep., 11(1), 2021, 6504, 10.1038/s41598-021-85941-9.
Bunt, C.M., Castro-Santos, T., Haro, A., Performance of fish passage structures at upstream barriers to migration. River Res. Appl. 28:4 (2012), 457–478, 10.1002/rra.1565.
Chen, J., Shi, H., Sivakumar, B., Peart, M.R., Population, water, food, energy and dams. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 56 (2016), 18–28, 10.1016/j.rser.2015.11.043.
Chen, Q., Li, Q., Lin, Y., Zhang, J., Xia, J., Ni, J., Cooke, S.J., Best, J., He, S., Feng, T., Chen, Y., Tonina, D., Benjankar, R., Birk, S., Fleischmann, A.S., Yan, H., Tang, L., River damming impacts on fish habitat and associated conservation measures. Rev. Geophys., 61(4), 2023, e2023RG000819, 10.1029/2023RG000819.
Davidsen, J., Svenning, M.-A., Orell, P., Yoccoz, N., Dempson, J.B., Niemelä, E., Klemetsen, A., Lamberg, A., Erkinaro, J., Spatial and temporal migration of wild Atlantic salmon smolts determined from a video camera array in the sub-Arctic River Tana. Fish. Res. 74:1 (2005), 210–222, 10.1016/j.fishres.2005.02.005.
Dewals, B., Kitsikoudis, V., Angel Mejía-Morales, M., Archambeau, P., Mignot, E., Proust, S., Erpicum, S., Pirotton, M., Paquier, A., Can the 2D shallow water equations model flow intrusion into buildings during urban floods?. J. Hydrol., 619, 2023, 129231, 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2023.129231.
Dolotov, S.I., The effects of water temperature on the migration of smolts of the Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L. J. Ichthyol. 46:2 (2006), S194–S203, 10.1134/S0032945206110099.
Doogan, A., Cotter, D., Bond, N., Ó’Maoiléidigh, N., Brophy, D., Partitioning survival during early marine migration of wild and hatchery-reared Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) smolts using acoustic telemetry. Animal Biotelemetry, 11(1), 2023, 39, 10.1186/s40317-023-00352-z.
Enders, E.C., Gessel, M.H., Williams, J.G., Development of successful fish passage structures for downstream migrants requires knowledge of their behavioural response to accelerating flow. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 66:12 (2009), 2109–2117, 10.1139/F09-141.
Erpicum, S., Dewals, B., Archambeau, P., Detrembleur, S., Pirotton, M., Detailed inundation modelling using high resolution DEMs. Engineering Applications of Computational Fluid Mechanics 4:2 (2010), 196–208, 10.1080/19942060.2010.11015310.
Erpicum, S., Kitsikoudis, V., Archambeau, P., Dewals, B., Pirotton, M., Experimental assessment of the influence of fish passage geometry parameters on downstream migrating Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) Smolts behavior. Water, 14(4), 2022, Article 4, 10.3390/w14040616.
Fjeldstad, H.P., Uglem, I., Diserud, O.H., Fiske, P., Forseth, T., Kvingedal, E., Hvidsten, N.A., Økland, F., Järnegren, J., A concept for improving Atlantic salmon Salmo salar smolt migration past hydro power intakes. J. Fish Biol. 81:2 (2012), 642–663, 10.1111/j.1095-8649.2012.03363.x.
Franklin, P.A., Bašić, T., Davison, P.I., Dunkley, K., Ellis, J., Gangal, M., González-Ferreras, A.M., Gutmann Roberts, C., Hunt, G., Joyce, D., Klöcker, C.A., Mawer, R., Rittweg, T., Stoilova, V., Gutowsky, L.F.G., Aquatic connectivity: challenges and solutions in a changing climate. J. Fish Biol. 105:2 (2024), 392–411, 10.1111/jfb.15727.
Fraser, N.H.C., Metcalfe, N.B., Thorpe, J.E., Temperature-dependent switch between diurnal and nocturnal foraging in salmon. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B Biol. Sci. 252:1334 (1993), 135–139, 10.1098/rspb.1993.0057.
Gibeau, P., Connors, B.M., Palen, W.J., Run-of-River hydropower and salmonids: potential effects and perspective on future research. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 74:7 (2017), 1135–1149, 10.1139/cjfas-2016-0253.
Goffin, L., Dewals, B., Erpicum, S., Pirotton, M., Archambeau, P., An optimized and scalable algorithm for the fast convergence of steady 1-D open-channel flows. Water, 12(11), Article 11, 2020, 10.3390/w12113218.
Gore, J.A., Banning, J., Chapter 3—discharge measurements and streamflow analysis. Hauer, F.R., Lamberti, G.A., (eds.) Methods in Stream Ecology, Third edition, Volume 1, 2017, Academic Press, 49–70, 10.1016/B978-0-12-416558-8.00003-2.
Grill, G., Lehner, B., Thieme, M., Geenen, B., Tickner, D., Antonelli, F., Babu, S., Borrelli, P., Cheng, L., Crochetiere, H., Ehalt Macedo, H., Filgueiras, R., Goichot, M., Higgins, J., Hogan, Z., Lip, B., McClain, M.E., Meng, J., Mulligan, M., Zarfl, C., Mapping the world's free-flowing rivers. Nature (London) 569:7755 (2019), 215–221, 10.1038/s41586-019-1111-9.
Harvey, A.C., Glover, K.A., Wennevik, V., Skaala, Ø., Atlantic salmon and sea trout display synchronised smolt migration relative to linked environmental cues. Sci. Rep., 10(1), 2020, 3529, 10.1038/s41598-020-60588-0.
Havn, T.B., Thorstad, E.B., Teichert, M.A.K., Sæther, S.A., Heermann, L., Hedger, R.D., Tambets, M., Diserud, O.H., Borcherding, J., Økland, F., Hydropower-related mortality and behaviour of Atlantic salmon smolts in the river Sieg, a German tributary to the Rhine. Hydrobiologia 805:1 (2018), 273–290, 10.1007/s10750-017-3311-3.
Honkanen, H.M., Orrell, D.L., Newton, M., McKelvey, S., Stephen, A., Duguid, R.A., Adams, C.E., The downstream migration success of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) smolts through natural and impounded standing waters. Ecol. Eng., 161, 2021, 106161, 10.1016/j.ecoleng.2021.106161.
Hvidsten, N., Jensen, A., Vivås, H., Bakke, Ø., Heggberget, T., Downstream migration of Atlantic salmon smolts in relation to water flow, water temperature, moon phase and social behaviour. Nord. J. Freshw. Res. 70 (1995), 38–48.
Ibbotson, A.T., Beaumont, W.R.C., Pinder, A., Welton, S., Ladle, M., Diel migration patterns of Atlantic salmon smolts with particular reference to the absence of crepuscular migration. Ecol. Freshw. Fish 15:4 (2006), 544–551, 10.1111/j.1600-0633.2006.00194.x.
Jonsson, B., Jonsson, N., Hansen, L.P., Differences in life history and migratory behaviour between wild and hatchery-reared Atlantic salmon in nature. Aquaculture 98:1 (1991), 69–78, 10.1016/0044-8486(91)90372-E.
Jutila, E., Jokikokko, E., Seasonal differences in smolt traits and post-smolt survival of wild Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, migrating from a northern boreal river. Fish. Manag. Ecol. 15:1 (2008), 1–9, 10.1111/j.1365-2400.2007.00562.x.
Kobyshev, A., Bertrand, H., Randolf, I., Vandenberg, J., Stopa, K., Matthias, & Yasirroni, M. (2017). Suntime (Version 1.3.2) [Computer software]. https://github.com/SatAgro/suntime.
Lerquet, M., Colson, D., Beguin, J., & Sonny, D. (2021). Rapport de suivi télémétrique des smolts de saumon atlantique durant la phase de test pilote de mesures de protection sur les sites hydroélectriques de Luminus (Milestone No. 2; p. 38). https://www.life4fish.be/en/deliverables-and-publications.
Life4Fish. (2023). Life4Fish. https://www.life4fish.be/en.
Lilly, J., Honkanen, H.M., McCallum, J.M., Newton, M., Bailey, D.M., Adams, C.E., Combining acoustic telemetry with a mechanistic model to investigate characteristics unique to successful Atlantic salmon smolt migrants through a standing body of water. Environ. Biol. Fish 105:12 (2022), 2045–2063, 10.1007/s10641-021-01172-x.
Lucas-Borja, M.E., Piton, G., Yu, Y., Castillo, C., Antonio Zema, D., Check dams worldwide: objectives, functions, effectiveness and undesired effects. CATENA, 204, 2021, 105390, 10.1016/j.catena.2021.105390.
Martin, P., Rancon, J., Segura, G., Laffont, J., Boeuf, G., Dufour, S., Experimental study of the influence of photoperiod and temperature on the swimming behaviour of hatchery-reared Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) smolts. Aquaculture 362–363 (2012), 200–208, 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2011.11.047.
Nilsen, C.I., Vollset, K.W., Velle, G., Barlaup, B.T., Normann, E.S., Stöger, E., Lennox, R.J., Atlantic salmon of wild and hatchery origin have different migration patterns. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 80:4 (2023), 690–699, 10.1139/cjfas-2022-0120.
Otero, J., L'Abée-Lund, J.H., Castro-Santos, T., Leonardsson, K., Storvik, G.O., Jonsson, B., Dempson, B., Russell, I.C., Jensen, A.J., Baglinière, J.-L., Dionne, M., Armstrong, J.D., Romakkaniemi, A., Letcher, B.H., Kocik, J.F., Erkinaro, J., Poole, R., Rogan, G., Lundqvist, H., Vøllestad, L.A., Basin-scale phenology and effects of climate variability on global timing of initial seaward migration of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Glob. Chang. Biol. 20:1 (2014), 61–75, 10.1111/gcb.12363.
Ovidio, M., Dierckx, A., Benitez, J.-P., Movement behaviour and fishway performance for endemic and exotic species in a large anthropized river. Limnologica, 99, 2023, 126061, 10.1016/j.limno.2023.126061.
Ovidio, M., Renardy, S., Dierckx, A., Nzau Matondo, B., Benitez, J.-P., Improving bypass performance and passage success of Atlantic salmon smolts at an old fish-hostile hydroelectric power station: a challenging task. Ecol. Eng., 160, 2021, 106148, 10.1016/j.ecoleng.2021.106148.
Peirson, W.L., Harris, J.H., Potential for tube fishways to pass salmon upstream over high dams. J. Hydro Environ. Res. 58 (2025), 36–49, 10.1016/j.jher.2024.12.001.
Philippart, J.-C., Les Poissons de la Vesdre. Tribune de l'Eau, 60(643–644), 2008 https://orbi.uliege.be/handle/2268/241408.
Philippart, J.C., Micha, J.C., Baras, E., Prignon, C., Gillet, A., Joris, S., The Belgian project “Meuse Salmon 2000”. First Results, Problems and Future Prospects. 29:3 (1994), 315–317 https://www.proquest.com/docview/1943292921/abstract/5075B9E4F3DA4E1DPQ/1.
Pompeu, C.R., Peñas, F.J., Goldenberg-Vilar, A., Álvarez-Cabria, M., Barquín, J., Assessing the effects of irrigation and hydropower dams on river communities using taxonomic and multiple trait-based approaches. Ecol. Indic., 145, 2022, 109662, 10.1016/j.ecolind.2022.109662.
Prignon, C., Micha, J.C., Rimbaud, G., Philippart, J.C., Rehabilitation efforts for Atlantic salmon in the Meuse basin area: synthesis 1983–1998. Hydrobiologia 410:0 (1999), 69–77, 10.1023/A:1003739327687.
R Core Team. (2023). The R Project for Statistical Computing (Version 4.3.1) [Windows]. R Core Team. https://www.r-project.org/.
Renardy, S., Takriet, A., Benitez, J.-P., Dierckx, A., Baeyens, R., Coeck, J., Pauwels, I.S., Mouton, A., Archambeau, P., Dewals, B., Pirotton, M., Erpicum, S., Ovidio, M., Trying to choose the less bad route: individual migratory behaviour of Atlantic salmon smolts (Salmo salar L.) approaching a bifurcation between a hydropower station and a navigation canal. Ecol. Eng., 169, 2021, 106304, 10.1016/j.ecoleng.2021.106304.
Renardy, S., Ciraane, U.D., Benitez, J.-P., Dierckx, A., Gelder, J., Silva, A.T., Archambeau, P., Dewals, B., Pirotton, M., Erpicum, S., Ovidio, M., Assessment of the attractiveness and passage efficiency of different fish passage solutions at a hydropower plant by combining fine scale 2D-telemetry and hydraulic numerical modelling. Environments, 10(7), Article 7, 2023, 10.3390/environments10070107.
Renardy, S., Ciraane, U.D., Benitez, J.-P., Dierckx, A., Archambeau, P., Pirotton, M., Erpicum, S., Ovidio, M., Combining fine-scale telemetry and hydraulic numerical modelling to understand the behavioural tactics and the migration route choice of smolts at a complex hydropower plant. Hydrobiologia 850:14 (2023), 3091–3111, 10.1007/s10750-023-05237-z.
Renardy, S., Ciraane, U.D., Benitez, J.-P., Dierckx, A., Archambeau, P., Pirotton, M., Erpicum, S., Ovidio, M., Combining fine-scale telemetry and hydraulic numerical modelling to understand the behavioural tactics and the migration route choice of smolts at a complex hydropower plant. Hydrobiologia 850 (2023), 3091–3111, 10.1007/s10750-023-05237-z.
Riley, W.D., Bendall, B., Ives, M.J., Edmonds, N.J., Maxwell, D.L., Street lighting disrupts the diel migratory pattern of wild Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., smolts leaving their natal stream. Aquaculture 330–333 (2012), 74–81, 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2011.12.009.
Roberts, L.J., Taylor, J., Gough, P.J., Forman, D.W., De LEANIZ, C.G., Night stocking facilitates nocturnal migration of hatchery-reared Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, smolts. Fish. Manag. Ecol. 16:1 (2009), 10–13, 10.1111/j.1365-2400.2008.00611.x.
Roy, R., Beguin, J., Watthez, Q., Goffaux, D., & Sonny, D. (2017). Suivi des smolts de saumon en migration au niveau du tronçon de la Meuse exploité par 6 centrales hydroélectriques (Synthesis No. 1; p. 79). PROFISH. https://www.life4fish.be/en/deliverables-and-publications.
Scruton, D.A., McKinley, R.S., Kouwen, N., Eddy, W., Booth, R.K., Improvement and optimization of fish guidance efficiency (FGE) at a behavioural fish protection system for downstream migrating Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) smolts. River Res. Appl. 19:5–6 (2003), 605–617, 10.1002/rra.735.
Silva, A.T., Lucas, M.C., Castro-Santos, T., Katopodis, C., Baumgartner, L.J., Thiem, J.D., Aarestrup, K., Pompeu, P.S., O'Brien, G.C., Braun, D.C., Burnett, N.J., Zhu, D.Z., Fjeldstad, H., Forseth, T., Rajaratnam, N., Williams, J.G., Cooke, S.J., The future of fish passage science, engineering, and practice. Fish Fish. 19:2 (2018), 340–362, 10.1111/faf.12258.
Silva, A.T., Bærum, K.M., Hedger, R.D., Baktoft, H., Fjeldstad, H.-P., Gjelland, K.Ø., Økland, F., Forseth, T., The effects of hydrodynamics on the three-dimensional downstream migratory movement of Atlantic salmon. Sci. Total Environ., 705, 2020, 135773, 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135773.
Simmons, O.M., Gregory, S.D., Gillingham, P.K., Riley, W.D., Scott, L.J., Britton, J.R., Biological and environmental influences on the migration phenology of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar smolts in a chalk stream in southern England. Freshw. Biol. 66:8 (2021), 1581–1594, 10.1111/fwb.13776.
Sortland, L.K., Aarestrup, K., Birnie-Gauvin, K., Comparing the migration behavior and survival of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and brown trout (Salmo trutta) smolts. J. Fish Biol. n/a(n/a) (2024), 1–17, 10.1111/jfb.15749.
SPW, S. P. de W, L'hydrométrie en Wallonie. L'hydrométrie en Wallonie https://hydrometrie.wallonie.be/home.html, 2024.
Strople, L.C., Filgueira, R., Hatcher, B.G., Denny, S., Bordeleau, X., Whoriskey, F.G., Crossin, G.T., The effect of environmental conditions on Atlantic salmon smolts’ (Salmo salar) bioenergetic requirements and migration through an inland sea. Environ. Biol. Fish 101:10 (2018), 1467–1482, 10.1007/s10641-018-0792-5.
Szabo-Meszaros, M., Forseth, T., Baktoft, H., Fjeldstad, H.-P., Silva, A.T., Gjelland, K.Ø., Økland, F., Uglem, I., Alfredsen, K., Modelling mitigation measures for smolt migration at dammed river sections. Ecohydrology, 12(7), 2019, e2131, 10.1002/eco.2131.
Teichert, N., Benitez, J.-P., Dierckx, A., Tétard, S., de Oliveira, E., Trancart, T., Feunteun, E., Ovidio, M., Development of an accurate model to predict the phenology of Atlantic salmon smolt spring migration. Aquat. Conserv. Mar. Freshwat. Ecosyst. 30:8 (2020), 1552–1565, 10.1002/aqc.3382.
Thorstad, E.B., Whoriskey, F., Uglem, I., Moore, A., Rikardsen, A.H., Finstad, B., A critical life stage of the Atlantic salmon Salmo salar: behaviour and survival during the smolt and initial post-smolt migration. J. Fish Biol. 81:2 (2012), 500–542, 10.1111/j.1095-8649.2012.03370.x.
Thorstad, E.B., Bliss, D., Breau, C., Damon-Randall, K., Sundt-Hansen, L.E., Hatfield, E.M.C., Horsburgh, G., Hansen, H., Maoiléidigh, N.Ó., Sheehan, T., Sutton, S.G., Atlantic salmon in a rapidly changing environment—facing the challenges of reduced marine survival and climate change. Aquat. Conserv. Mar. Freshwat. Ecosyst. 31:9 (2021), 2654–2665, 10.1002/aqc.3624.
Tortajada, C., Dams: an essential component of development. J. Hydrol. Eng., 20(1), 2015, A4014005, 10.1061/(ASCE)HE.1943-5584.0000919.
Van Rijssel, J.C., Breukelaar, A.W., De Leeuw, J.J., Van Puijenbroek, M.E.B., Schilder, K., Schrimpf, A., Vriese, F.T., Winter, H.V., Reintroducing Atlantic salmon in the river Rhine for decades: why did it not result in the return of a viable population?. River Res. Appl. 40:7 (2024), 1164–1182, 10.1002/rra.4284.
Van Rossum, G., Drake, F.L. Jr., Python 3 (version 3) [computer software]. https://www.python.org/downloads/release/python-31011/, 1995.
Vollset, K.W., Lennox, R.J., Lamberg, A., Skaala, Ø., Sandvik, A.D., Sægrov, H., Kvingedal, E., Kristensen, T., Jensen, A.J., Haraldstad, T., Barlaup, B.T., Ugedal, O., Predicting the nationwide outmigration timing of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) smolts along 12 degrees of latitude in Norway. Divers. Distrib. 27:8 (2021), 1383–1392, 10.1111/ddi.13285.
Wang, X., Chen, Y., Yuan, Q., Xing, X., Hu, B., Gan, J., Zheng, Y., Liu, Y., Effect of river damming on nutrient transport and transformation and its countermeasures. Front. Mar. Sci., 9, 2022, 10.3389/fmars.2022.1078216.
Watson, S., Schneider, A., Santen, L., Deters, K.A., Mueller, R., Pflugrath, B., Stephenson, J., Deng, Z.D., Safe passage of American eels through a novel hydropower turbine. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 151:6 (2022), 711–724, 10.1002/tafs.10385.
Whalen, K.G., Parrish, D.L., McCormick, S.D., Migration timing of Atlantic Salmon Smolts relative to environmental and physiological factors. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 128:2 (1999), 289–301, 10.1577/1548-8659(1999)128<0289:MTOASS>2.0.CO;2.
Zydlewski, G.B., Stich, D.S., McCormick, S.D., Photoperiod control of downstream movements of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar smolts. J. Fish Biol. 85:4 (2014), 1023–1041, 10.1111/jfb.12509.