[en] Cannabis has been at the center of scientific attention for some years now. Since its pharmacological potential has been highlighted, cannabis has become a hot topic in research laboratories, leading to the publication of many scientific studies. Focusing on analytical chemistry, an enormous number of analytical methods for cannabinoid (CNB) determination have been published, involving various tech-niques. However, no globally accepted reference method for CNB determination has yet been chosen.This review aims to identify very recent analytical methods developed to analyze phytocannabinoids in cannabis herbal samples. For certain techniques, stagnation in terms of employed operational conditions can be observed. In this context, a reference method of analysis should be proposed and accepted worldwide to standardize CNB determination. In contrast, for other techniques, we are witnessing a scientific ferment, which is resulting in the development of new interesting analytical options. In this regard, particular focus has been given to these niche techniques, which are now emerging in the analytical panorama of cannabis analysis, offering new important perspectives for the future of cannabis testing. Supercritical fluid chromatography and infrared spectroscopy showed tangible advantages when applied to CNB determination in herbal samples.
Research Center/Unit :
CIRM - Centre Interdisciplinaire de Recherche sur le Médicament - ULiège
Disciplines :
Pharmacy, pharmacology & toxicology
Author, co-author :
Deidda, Riccardo ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département de pharmacie > Chimie analytique
Dispas, Amandine ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département de pharmacie > Analyse des médicaments
De Bleye, Charlotte ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département de pharmacie > Département de pharmacie
Hubert, Philippe ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département de pharmacie > Chimie analytique
Ziemons, Eric ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département de pharmacie > Chimie analytique
Language :
English
Title :
Critical review on recent trends in cannabinoid determination on cannabis herbal samples: From chromatographic to vibrational spectroscopic techniques
Citti, C., Ciccarella, G., Braghiroli, D., Parenti, C., Vandelli, M.A., Cannazza, G., Medicinal cannabis: principal cannabinoids concentration and their stability evaluated by a high performance liquid chromatography coupled to diode array and quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry method. J. Pharmaceut. Biomed. Anal. 128 (2016), 201–209.
ElSohly, M.A., Radwan, M.M., Gul, W., Chandra, S., Galal, A., Phytochemistry of cannabis sativa L. Kinghorn, A., Falk, H., Gibbons, S., Kobayashi, J., (eds.) Phytocannabinoids, 2017, Springer International Publishing, Switzerland.
Duggan, P.J., The chemistry of cannabis and cannabinoids. Aust. J. Chem. 74 (2021), 369–387.
Wang, Y.-H., Avula, B., ElSohly, M.A., Radwan, M.M., Wang, M., Wanas, A.S., Mehmedic, Z., Khan, I.A., Quantitative determination of Δ9-THC, CBG, CBD, their acidic precursors and five other neutral cannabinoids by UHPLC-UV-MS. Planta Med. 84 (2018), 260–266.
Hurgobin, B., Tamiru-Oli, M., Welling, M.T., Doblin, M.S., Bacic, A., Whelan, J., Lewsey, M.G., Recent advances in Cannabis sativa genomics research. New Phytol. 230 (2021), 73–89.
Braich, S., Baillie, R.C., Jewell, L.S., Spangenberg, G.C., Cogan, N.O.I., Generation of a comprehensive transcriptome atlas and transcriptome dynamics in medicinal cannabis. Sci. Rep., 9, 2019, 16583.
Welling, M.T., Liu, L., Hazekamp, A., Dowell, A., Developing robust standardised analytical procedures for cannabinoid quantification: laying the foundations for an emerging cannabis-based pharmaceutical industry, Med. Cannabis Cannabinoids 2 (2019), 1–13.
Fischedick, J.T., Hazekamp, A., Erkelens, T., Choi, Y.H., Verpoorte, R., Metabolic fingerprint of Cannabis sativa L., cannabinoids and terpenoids for chemotaxonomic and drug standardization purposes. Phytochemistry 71 (2010), 2058–2071.
Scheunemann, A., Elsner, K., Germerott, T., Hess, C., Zörntlein, S., Röhrich, J., Extensive phytocannabinoid profiles of seized cannabis and cannabis-based medicines – identification of potential distinguishing markers. Forensic Sci. Int., 322, 2021, 110773.
Mazzoccanti, G., Ismail, O.H., D'Acquarica, I., Villani, C., Manzo, C., Wilcox, M., Cavazzini, A., Gasparrini, F., Cannabis through the looking glass: chemo- and enantio-selective separation of phytocannabinoids by enantioselective ultra high performance supercritical fluid chromatography. Chem. Commun. 53 (2017), 12262–12265.
United Nation Office on Drugs and Crime, Unodc, Recommended methods for the identification and analysis of cannabis and cannabis products. https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/scientists/recommended-methods-for-the-identification-and-analysis-of-cannabis-and-cannabis-products.html (accessed on 14 June, 2021).
Jambo, H., Dispas, A., Avohou, H.T., André, S., Hubert, C., Lebrun, P., Ziemons, E., Hubert, P., Implementation of a generic SFC-MS method for the quality control of potentially counterfeited medicinal cannabis with synthetic cannabinoids. J. Chromatogr. B 1092 (2018), 332–342.
Alves, V.L., Gonçalves, J.L., Aguiar, J., Caldeira, M.J., Teixeira, H.M., Câmara, J.S., Highly sensitive screening and analytical characterization of synthetic cannabinoids in nine different herbal mixtures. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 413 (2021), 2257–2273.
Whiting, P.F., Wolff, R.F., Deshpande, S., Di Nisio, M., Duffy, S., Hernandez, A.V., Keurentjes, J.C., Lang, S., Misso, K., Ryder, S., Schmidlkofer, S., Westwood, M., Kleijnen, J., Cannabinoids for medical use: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 313:24 (2015), 2456–2473.
Braithwaite, I., Bhagavan, C., Doppen, M., Kung, S., Oldfield, K., Newton-Howes, G., Medicinal applications of cannabis/cannabinoids. Curr. Opi. Psychol. 38 (2021), 1–10.
Schlag, A.K., Hindocha, C., Zafar, R., Nutt, D.J., Curran, H.V., Cannabis based medicines and cannabis dependence: a critical review of issues and evidence. J. Psychopharmacol., 2021, 10.1177/0269881120986393.
Russo, E.B., Taming THC: potential cannabis synergy and phytocannbinoid-terpenoid entourage effects. Br. J. Pharmacol. 163 (2011), 1344–1364.
Leghissa, A., Hildenbrand, Z.L., Schug, K.A., A review of methods for the chemical characterization of cannabis natural products. J. Separ. Sci. 41 (2018), 398–415.
Citti, C., Braghiroli, D., Vandelli, M.A., Cannazza, G., Pharmaceutical and biomedical analysis of cannabinoids: a critical review. J. Pharmaceut. Biomed. Anal. 147 (2018), 565–579.
Nahar, L., Onder, A., Sarker, S.D., A review on the recent advances in HPLC, UHPLC and UPLC analyses of naturally occurring cannabinoids (2010 – 2019). Phytochem. Anal. 31 (2020), 413–457.
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (Emcdda), Cannabis legislation in Europe. https://www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/publications/4135/TD0217210ENN.pdf (accessed on 26 June, 2021).
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), European Drug Report 2020, Trends and Developments. https://www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/publications/13236/TDAT20001ENN_web.pdf (accessed on 26 June, 2021).
WHO Guidelines on Good Agricultural and Collection Practices (GACP) for Medicinal Plants, Geneva, (2003). https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9241546271 ((accessed on 14 June, 2021).
European Medicines Agency, Committee on herbal medicinal products. Guideline on good agricultural and collection practice (GACP) for starting materials of herbal origin. London https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/scientific-guideline/guideline-good-agricultural-collection-practice-gacp-starting-materials-herbal-origin_en.pdf, 2006. (Accessed 14 June 2021)
European Commission Health and Consumers Directorate General, EudraLex: the rules governing medicinal products in the European union. Good Manufacturing Practice Medicinal Products for Human and Veterinary Use, vol. 4, 2010 Brussels https://ec.europa.eu/health/documents/eudralex/vol-4_en. (Accessed 14 June 2021)
Citti, C., Russo, F., Sgrò, S., Gallo, A., Zanotto, A., Forni, F., Vandelli, M.A., Laganà, A., Montone, C.M., Gigli, G., Cannazza, G., Pitfalls in the analysis of phytocannabinoids in cannabis inflorescence. Anal. Bional. Chem. 412 (2020), 4009–4022.
Jikomes, N., Zoorob, M., The cannabinoid content of legal Cannabis in Washington State varies systematically across testing facilities and popular consumer products. Sci. Rep., 8(1), 2018, 4519.
Smith, B.C., How standardized sample preparation can solve the inter-laboratory variation problem. Cannabis Analysis 3 (2020), 10–15.
A. Beadle, Testing the Water: The Top Techniques for Moisture Content Analysis In Cannabis. https://www.analyticalcannabis.com/articles/testing-the-water-the-top-techniques-for-moisture-content-analysis-in-cannabis-311811 ((accessed on 16 August, 2021).
Nahar, L., Uddin, S.J., Alam, A., Sarker, S.D., Extraction of naturally occurring cannabinoids: an update. Phytochem. Anal., 2020, 1–14.
Baldino, L., Scognamiglio, M., Reverchon, E., Supercritical fluid technologies applied to the extraction of compounds of industrial interest from Cannabis sativa L. and to their pharmaceutical formulations: a review. J. Supercrit. Fluids, 165, 2020, 104960.
Sherma, J., Rabel, F., Thin layer chromatography in the analysis of cannabis and its components and synthetic cannabinoids. J. Liq. Chromatogr. Relat. Technol. 42 (2019), 613–628.
Mano-Sousa, B.J., Maia, G.A.S., Lima, P.L., Campos, V.A., Negri, G., Drumond Chequer, F.M., Duarte-Almeida, J.M., Color determination method and evaluation of methods for the detection of cannabinoids by thin-layer chromatography (TLC). J. Forensic Sci. 66 (2021), 854–865.
Peschel, W., Politi, M., 1H NMR and HPLC/DAD for Cannabis sativa L. chemotype distinction, extract profiling and specification. Talanta 140 (2015), 150–165.
Liu, Y., Brettell, T.A., Victoria, J., Wood, M.R., Staretz, M.E., High performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) analysis of cannabinoids in cannabis extracts. Forensic Chem, 19, 2020, 100249.
Leite, J. de A., de Oliveira, M.V.L., Conti, R., Borges, W. de S., Rosa, T.R., Filgueiras, P.R., Lacerda JR, V., Romão, W., Neto, A.C., Extraction and isolation of cannabinoids from marijuana seizures and characterization by 1H NMR allied to chemometric tools. Sci. Justice 58 (2018), 355–365.
Fodor, B., Molnár-Perl, I., The role of derivatization techniques in the analysis of plant cannabinoids by gas chromatography mass spectrometry. Trends Anal. Chem. 95 (2017), 149–158.
Borges, G.R., Birk, L., Scheid, C., Morés, L., Carasek, E., Saga Kitamura, R.O., Lopes Roveri, F., Eller, S., de Oliveira Merib, J., de Oliveira, T.F., Simple and straightforward analysis of cannabinoids in medicinal products by fast-GC-FID. Forensic Toxicol. 38 (2020), 531–535.
Baranauskaite, J., Marksa, M., Ivanauskas, L., Vitkevicius, K., Liaudanskas, M., Skyrius, V., Baranauskas, A., Development of extraction technique and GC/FID method for the analysis of cannabinoids in Cannabis sativa L. spp. santhica (hemp). Phytochem. Anal. 31 (2020), 516–521.
Casiraghi, A., Roda, G., Casagni, E., Cristina, C., Musazzi, U.M., Franzè, S., Rocco, P., Giuliani, C., Fico, G., Minghetti, P., Gambaro, V., Extraction method and analysis of cannabinoids in cannabis olive oil preparations. Planta Med. 84 (2018), 242–249.
Béres, T., Černochová, L., Zeljković, S.Ć., Benická, S., Gucky, T., Berčák, M., Tarkowski, P., Intralaboratory comparison of analytical methods for quantification of major phytocannabinoids. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 411 (2019), 3069–3079.
Ibrahim, E.A., Gul, W., Gul, S.W., Stamper, B.J., Hadad, G.M., Abdel Salam, R.A., Ibrahim, A.K., Ahmed, S.A., Chandra, S., Lata, H., Radwan, M.M., ElSohly, M.A., Determination of acid and neutral cannabinoids in extracts of different strains of Cannabis sativa using GC-FID. Planta Med. 84 (2018), 250–259.
Burnier, C., Esseiva, P., Roussel, C., Quantification of THC in Cannabis plants by fast-HPLC-DAD: a promising method for routine analyses. Talanta 192 (2019), 135–141.
Delgado-Povedano, M.M., Sánchez-Carnerero Callado, C., Priego-Capote, F., Ferreiro-Vera, C., Untargeted characterization of extracts from Cannabis sativa L. cultivars by gas and liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry in high resolution mode. Talanta, 208, 2020, 120384.
Cardenia, V., Gallina Toschi, T., Scappini, S., Rubino, R.C., Rodriguez-Estrada, M.T., Development and validation of a Fast gas chromatography/mass spectrometry method for the determination of cannabinoids in Cannabis sativa L. J. Food Drug Anal. 26 (2018), 1283–1292.
Fodor, B., Boldizsár, I., Molnár-Perl, I., Alkylsilyl speciation and direct sample preparation of plant cannabinoids prior to their analysis by GC-MS. Anal. Chim. Acta 1021 (2018), 51–59.
Felletti, S., De Luca, C., Buratti, A., Bozza, D., Cerrato, A., Capriotti, A.L., Laganà, A., Cavazzini, A., Catani, M., Potency testing of cannabinoids by liquid and supercritical fluid chromatography: where we are, what we need. J. Chromatogr., A, 1651, 2021, 462304.
Pichini, S., Mannocchi, G., Gottardi, M., Pilar Pérez-Acevedo, A., Poyatos, L., Papaseit, E., Pérez- Mañá, C., Farré, M., Pacifici, R., Busardò, F.P., Fast and sentitive UHPLC-MS/MS analysis of cannabinoids and their acid precursors in pharmaceutical preparations of medical cannabis and their metabolites in conventional and non-conventional biological matrices of treated individual. Talanta, 209, 2020, 120537.
Christinat, N., Savoy, M.-C., Mottier, P., Development, validation and application of a LC-MS/MS method for quantification of 15 cannabinoids in food. Food Chem., 318, 2020, 126469.
Križman, M., A simplified approach for isocratic HPLC analysis of cannabinoids by fine tuning chromatographic selectivity. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 246 (2020), 315–322.
Dei Cas, M., Casagni, E., Saccardo, A., Arnoldi, S., Young, C., Scotti, S., Vieira de Manicor, E., Gambaro, V., Roda, G., The Italian panorama of cannabis light preparation: determination of cannabinoids by LC-UV. Forensic Sci. Int., 307, 2020, 110113.
Deville, M., Dubois, N., Denooz, R., Charlier, C., Validation of an UHPLC/DAD method for the determination of cannabinoids in seized materials: analysis of 213 samples sold in Belgian CBD shops. Forensic Sci. Int., 310, 2020, 110234.
Elkins, A.C., Deseo, M.A., Rochfort, S., Ezernieks, V., Spangenberg, G., Development of a validated method for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of cannabinoids in plant biomass and medicinal cannabis resin extracts obtained by super-critical fluid extraction. J. Chromatogr. B 1109 (2019), 76–83.
Hädener, M., König, S., Weinmann, W., Quantitative determination ofCBD and THC and their acid precursors in confiscated cannabis samples by HPLC-DAD. Forensic Sci. Int. 299 (2019), 142–150.
Deidda, R., Avohou, H.T., Baronti, R., Davolio, P.L., Pasquini, B., Del Bubba, M., Hubert, C., Hubert, Ph, Orlandini, S., Furlanetto, S., Analytical quality by design: development and control strategy for a LC method to evaluate the cannabinoids content in cannabis olive oil extracts. J. Pharmaceut. Biomed. Anal. 166 (2019), 326–335.
Li, L., Duffy, B.C., Durocher, L.A., Dittmar, M.A., Acosta, R.A., Delaney, E.R., Li, L., Aldous, K.M., Spink, D.C., Potency analysis of medical marijuana products from New York State. Cannabis and Cannabinoid Res 4 (2019), 195–203.
Pellati, F., Brighenti, V., Sperlea, J., Marchetti, L., Bertelli, D., Benvenuti, S., New methods for the comprehensive analysis of bioactive compounds in Cannabis sativa L (hemp). Molecules, 23, 2018, 2639.
Fekete, S., Sadat-Noorbakhsh, V., Schelling, C., Molnár, I., Guillarme, D., Rudaz, S., Veuthey, J.-L., Implementation of a generic liquid chromatographic method development workflow: application to the analysis of phytocannabinoids and Cannabis sativa extracts. J. Pharmaceut. Biomed. Anal. 155 (2018), 116–124.
Berman, P., Futoran, K., Lewitus, G.M., Mukha, D., Benami, M., Shlomi, T., Meiri, D., A new ESI-LC/MS approach for comprehensive metabolic profiling of phytocannabinoids in Cannabis. Sci. Rep., 8, 2018, 14280.
Noestheden, M., Friedlander, G., Anspach, J., Krepich, S., Hyland, K.C., Zandberg, W.F., Chromatographic characterisation of 11 phytocannabinoids: quantitative and fit-to-purpose performance as a function of extra-column variance. Phytochem. Anal. 29 (2018), 507–515.
Patel, B., Wene, D., Fan, Z., Qualitative and quantitative measurement of cannabinoids in cannabis using modified HPLC/DAD method. J. Pharmaceut. Biomed. Anal. 146 (2017), 15–23.
Brighenti, V., Pellati, F., Steinbach, M., Maran, D., Benvenuti, S., Development of a new extraction technique and HPLC method for the analysis of non-psychoactive cannabinoids in fibre-type Cannabis sativa L. (hemp). J. Pharmaceut. Biomed. Anal. 143 (2017), 228–236.
Carcieri, C., Tomasello, C., Simiele, M., De Nicolò, A., Avataneo, V., Canzoneri, L., Cusato, J., Di Perri, G., D'Avolio, A., Cannabinoids concentration variability in cannabis olive oil galenic preparations. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 70 (2017), 143–149.
Pacifici, R., Marchei, E., Salvatore, F., Guandalini, L., Busardò, F.P., Pichini, S., Evaluation of cannabinoids concentration and stability in standardized preparations of cannabis tea and cannabis oil by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. 55 (2017), 1555–1563.
Gul, W., Gul, S.W., Radwan, M.M., Wanas, A.S., Mehmedic, Z., Khan, I.I., Sharaf, M.H.M., ElSohly, M.A., Determination of 11 cannabinoids in biomass and extracts of different varieties of cannabis using high-performance liquid chromatography. J. AOAC Int. 98 (2015), 1523–1528.
Giese, M.W., Lewis, M.A., Giese, L., Smith, K.M., Development and validation of a reliable and robust method for the analysis of cannabinoids and terpenes in cannabis. J. AOAC Int. 98 (2015), 1503–1522.
A.J. Aubin, C. Layton, S. Helmueller, Separation of 16 cannabinoids in cannabis flower and extracts using a reversed-phase isocratic HPLC method, application note: https://www.waters.com/webassets/cms/library/docs/720006426en.pdf (accessed on 12 May, 2021).
C. Layton, A.J. Aubin, UPLC separation for the analysis of cannabinoid content in cannabis flower and extracts, application note: https://www.waters.com/webassets/cms/library/docs/720006509en.pdf (accessed on 12 May, 2021).
C. Storm, M. Zumwalt, A. Macherone, Dedicated cannabinoid potency testing in cannabis or hemp products using the Agilent 1220 Infinity II LC System, application note: https://www.agilent.com/cs/library/applications/application-dedicated-cannabinoid-potency-testing-5991-9285-en-us-agilent.pdf (accessed on 12 June, 2021).
Calvi, L., Pentimalli, D., Panseri, S., Giupponi, L., Gelmini, F., Beretta, G., Vitali, D., Bruno, M., Zilio, E., Pavlovic, R., Giorgi, A., Comprehensive quality evaluation of medical Cannabis sativa L. inflorescence and macerated oils based on HS-SPME coupled to GC-MS and LC-HRMS (q-exactive orbitrap®) approach. J. Pharmaceut. Biomed. Anal. 150 (2018), 208–219.
D'Atri, V., Fekete, S., Clarke, A., Veuthey, J.-L., Guillarme, D., Recent advances in chromatography for pharmaceutical analysis. Anal. Chem. 91 (2019), 210–239.
Nie, B., Henion, J., Ryona, I., The role of mass spectrometry in the cannabis industry. J. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom. 30 (2019), 719–730.
Leghissa, A., Hildenbrand, Z.L., Foss, F.W., Schug, K.A., Determination of cannabinoids from a surrogate hops matrix using multiple reaction monitoring gas chromatography with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. J. Separ. Sci. 41 (2018), 459–468.
Dispas, A., Marini, R., Desfontaine, V., Veuthey, J.-L., Kotoni, D., Losacco, L.G., et al. First inter- laboratory study of a Supercritical Fluid Chromatography method for the determination of pharmaceutical impurities. J. Pharmaceut. Biomed. Anal. 161 (2018), 414–424.
Losacco, L.G., Veuthey, J.-L., Guillarme, D., Supercritical fluid chromatography – mass spectrometry: recent evolution and current trends. Trends Anal. Chem. 118 (2019), 731–738.
West, C., Current trends in supercritical fluid chromatography. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 410:25 (2018), 6441–6457.
Pilarová, V., Plachká, K., Khalikova, M.A., Svec, F., Nováková, L., Recent developments in supercritical fluid chromatography – mass spectrometry: is it a viable option for analysis of complex samples?. Trends Anal. Chem. 112 (2019), 212–225.
Lesellier, E., West, C., Spider diagram: a universal and versatile approach for system comparison and classification. Part 2: stationary phase properties. J. Chromatogr., A 1574 (2018), 71–81.
Nováková, L., Desfontaine, V., Ponzetto, F., Nicoli, R., Saugy, M., Veuthey, J.-L., Guillarme, D., Fast and sensitive supercritical fluid chromatography – tandem mass spectrometry multi-class screening method for the determination of doping agents in urine. Anal. Chim. Acta 915 (2016), 102–110.
Miller, L.M., Pinkston, J.D., Taylor, L.T., Modern Supercritical Fluid Chromatography Carbon Dioxide Containing Mobile Phases. first ed., 2020 Hoboken.
Bäckström, B., Cole, M.D., Jones, D.C., Davidson, G., Coleman, K., A preliminary study of the analysis of Cannabis by supercritical fluid chromatography with atmospheric pressure chemical ionisation mass spectroscopic detection. Sci. Justice 37:2 (1997), 91–97.
Wang, M., Wang, Y.-H., Avula, B., Radwan, M.M., Wanas, A.S., Mehmedic, Z., van Antwerp, J., ElSohly, M.A., Khan, I.A., Quantitative determination of cannabinoids in cannabis and cannabis products using ultra-high-performance supercritical fluid chromatography and diode array/mass spectrometric detection. J. Forensic Sci. 62 (2017), 602–611.
Deidda, R., Schelling, C., Roussel, J.-M., Dispas, A., De Bleye, C., Ziemons, E., Hubert, Ph, Veuthey, J.-L., The analysis of cannabinoids in cannabis samples by supercritical fluid chromatography and ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography: a comparison study. Anal. Sci. Adv. 2 (2021), 2–14.
J. Runco, A. Aubin, C. Layton, The separation of Δ8-THC, Δ9-THC, and their enantiomers by UPC2 using Trefoil chiral columns, application note: https://www.waters.com/webassets/cms/library/docs/720005812en.pdf (accessed on May 12, 2021).
M. Jacob, S. Krepich, M. Enmark, K. Levy, Fast and efficient separation of ten naturally occurring cannabinoids by supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) using Lux® 5m cellulose-2 column, application note: https://phenomenex.blob.core.windows.net/documents/4878d33c-7ef5-419d-ba71-bf4dd63735e1.pdf (accessed on 12 May, 2021).
Shimadzu, Analysis of 9 cannabinoids by supercritical fluid chromatography, application note: https://www.ssi.shimadzu.com/sites/ssi.shimadzu.com/files/Industry/Literature/hplc-034-Analysis-of-9-Cannabinoids-by-SFC.pdf (accessed on 12 May, 2021).
G. Li, J. Hitchcock, T. Brand, Separation and quantification of seven cannabinoids using supercritical fluid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (SFC-MS/MS), application note: https://www.agilent.com/cs/library/posters/public/AGILENT_ASMS2018_TP793.pdf (accessed on May 12, 2021).
Shenk, J.S., Workman, J.J., Westerhaus, M.O., Application of NIR spectroscopy to agricultural products. Burns, D.A., Ciurczak, E.W., (eds.) Handbook of Near-Infrared Analysis, 2008, Taylor & Francis Group, LCC, Boca Raton, 347–382.
Igne, B., Ciurczak, E.W., Ozaki, Y., Huck, C.W., Tsuchikawa, S., Engelsen, S.B., (eds.) Near-Infrared Spectroscopy in the Pharmaceutical Industry Near-Infrared Spectroscopy, 2021, Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd, Singapore, 391–412.
Baranović, G., Understanding the conformational, electronic and vibrational properties of Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and Cannabidiol (CBD). Pharmacophoric similarities and differences. J. Mol. Struct., 1244, 2021, 130945.
Deidda, R., Sacré, P.-Y., Clavaud, M., Coïc, L., Avohou, H.T., Hubert, Ph, Ziemons, E., Vibrational spectroscopy in analysis of pharmaceutical: critical review of innovative portable and handheld NIR and Raman spectrophotometers. Trends Anal. Chem. 114 (2019), 251–259.
Risoluti, R., Materazzi, S., Gregori, A., Ripani, L., Early detection of emerging street drugs by near infrared spectroscopy and chemometrics. Talanta 153 (2016), 407–413.
Coppey, F., Bécue, A., Sacré, P.-Y., Ziemons, E.M., Hubert, P., Esseiva, P., Providing illicit drug results in five seconds using ultra-portable NIR technology: an opportunity for forensic laboratories to cope with the trend toward the decentralization of forensic capabilities. Forensic Sci. Int., 317, 2020, 1104104.
de Araujo, W.R., Cardoso, T.M.G., da Rocha, R.G., Santana, M.H.P., Muñoz, R.A.A., Richter, E.M., Paixão, T.R.L.C., Portable analytical platforms for forensic chemistry: a review. Anal. Chim. Acta 1034 (2018), 1–21.
Kumar, N., Bansal, A., Sarma, G.S., Rawal, R.K., Chemometrics tools used in analytical chemistry: an overview. Talanta 123 (2014), 186–199.
Brereton, R.G., Jansen, J., Lopes, J., Marini, F., Pomerantsev, A., Rodionova, O., Roger, J.M., Walczak, B., Tauler, R., Chemometrics in analytical chemistry – part II: modeling, validation, and applications. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 410 (2018), 6691–6704.
Duchateau, C., Kauffmann, J.-M., Canfyn, M., Stévigny, C., De Braekeleer, K., Deconinck, E., Discrimination of legal and illegal Cannabis spp. according to European legislation using near infrared spectroscopy and chemometrics. Drug Test. Anal. 12:9 (2020), 1309–1319.
Sánchez-Carnerero Callado, C., Núñez-Sánchez, N., Casano, S., Ferreiro-Vera, C., The potential of near infrared spectroscopy to estimate the content of cannabinoids in Cannabis sativa L.: a comparative study. Talanta 190 (2018), 147–157.
Deidda, R., Coppey, F., Damergi, D., Schelling, C., Coïc, L., Veuthey, J.-L., Sacré, P.-Y., De Bleye, C., Hubert, Ph, Esseiva, P., Ziemons, E., New perspective for the in-field analysis of cannabis samples using handheld near-infrared spectroscopy: a case study focusing on the deteration of Δ9- tetrahydrocannabinol. J. Pharmaceut. Biomed. Anal., 202, 2021, 114150.
D. Townsend, I. Eustis, M. Lewis, S. Rodgers, K. Smith, A. Bohman, The determination of total THC and CBD content in cannabis flower by Fourier transform near infrared spectroscopy, application note: https://resources.perkinelmer.com/lab-solutions/resources/docs/APP_Determination_of_THC_and_CBD_CannabisFlower.pdf (accessed on 26 June, 2021).
Geskovski, N., Stefkov, G., Gigopulu, O., Stefov, S., Huck, C.W., Makreski, P., Mid-infrared spectroscopy as process analytical technology tool for estimation of THC and CBD content in Cannabis flowers and extracts. Spectrochim. Acta, 251, 2021, 119422.
D. Mainali, Quick and real-time potency determination of cannabinoids using FTIR spectroscopy, application note: https://www.agilent.com/cs/library/applications/5991-8810EN_cary630_cannabis_application.pdf (accessed on 22 June, 2021).
B.C. Smith, M.A. Lewis, J. Mendez, Optimization of cannabis grows using Fourier transform MID- infrared spectroscopy, application note: https://cdn.technologynetworks.com/tn/Resources/pdf/optimization-of-cannabis-grows-using-fourier-transform-mid-infrared-spectroscopy.pdf (accessed on 22 June, 2021).
Risoluti, R., Gullifa, G., Battistini, A., Materazzi, S., Monitoring of cannabinoids in hemp flours by MicroNIR/Chemometrics. Talanta, 211, 2020, 120672.
Risoluti, R., Gullifa, G., Battistini, A., Materazzi, S., MicroNIR/Chemometrics: a new analytical platform for fast and accurate detection of9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in oral fluids. Drug Alcohol Depend., 205, 2019, 107578.
Borille, B.T., Marcelo, M.C.A., Scorsatto Ortiz, R., de Cássia Mariotti, K., Ferrão, M.F., Pereira Limberger, R., Near infrared spectroscopy combined with chemometrics for growth stage classification of cannabis cultivated in a greenhouse from seized seeds. Sens. Actuators, A 173 (2017), 318–323.
Sanchez, L., Filter, C., Baltensperger, D., Kurouski, D., Confirmatory non-invasive and non-destructive differentiation between hemp and cannabis using a hand-held Raman spectrometer. RSC Adv., 10, 2020, 3212.
Sanchez, L., Baltensperger, D., Kurouski, D., Raman –based differentiation of hemp, cannabidiol-rich hemp, and cannabis. Anal. Chem. 92 (2020), 7733–7737.
Le Ru, E., Etchegoin, P., Principles of Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy and Related Plasmonic Effects. first ed., 2009, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Dies, H., Raveendran, J., Escobedo, C., Docoslis, A., Rapid identification and quantification of illicit drug on nanodendritic surface-enhanced Raman scattering substrated. Sens. Actuactors B Chem. 257 (2018), 382–388.
Deriu, C., Conticello, I., Mebel, A.M., McCord, B., Micro solid phase extraction surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (-SPE/SERS) screening test for the detection of the synthetic cannabinoid JWH- 018 in oral fluid. Anal. Chem. 91 (2019), 4780–4789.
Yu, B., Ge, M., Li, P., Xie, A., Yang, L., Development of surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy application for determination of illicit drugs: towards a practical sensor. Talanta 191 (2019), 1–10.
Yüksel, S., Schwenke, A.M., Soliveri, G., Ardizzone, S., Weber, K., Cialla-May, D., Hoeppener, S., Schubert, U.S., Popp, J., Trace detection of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) with a SERS-based capillary platform prepared by the in situ microwave synthesis of AgNPs. Anal. Chim. Acta 939 (2016), 93–100.
Milliken, S., Fraser, J., Poirier, S., Hulse, J., Tay, L.-L., Self-assembled vertically aligned Au nanorod arrays for surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) detection of Cannabinol. Spectrochim. Acta, Part A 196 (2018), 222–228.
Islam, S.K., Cheng, Y.P., Birke, R.L., Cañamares, M.V., Muehlethaler, C., Lombardi, J.R., An analysis of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and its analogs using surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS). Chem. Phys., 536, 2020, 110812.
Deidda, R., Orlandini, S., Hubert, Ph, Hubert, C., Risk-based approach for method development in pharmaceutical quality control context: a critical review. J. Pharmaceut. Biomed. Anal. 161 (2018), 110–121.
Borman, P., Chatfield, M., Nethercote, P., Thompson, D., Truman, K., The application of quality by design to analytical methods. Pharmaceut. Technol. 31 (2007), 142–152.