Mechanical and microstructural performance of compressed earth blocks stabilized with palm oil fuel ash: experimental study, systematic review and meta-analysis
Compressed earth blocks; Compressive strength; Earthen construction; Meta-analysis; Palm oil fuel ash; Earthen constructions; Experimental program; Fuel ash; Mechanical; Micro-structural; Performance; Systematic Review; Architecture; Civil and Structural Engineering; Building and Construction; Safety, Risk, Reliability and Quality; Mechanics of Materials
Abstract :
[en] This study integrates a systematic review, a meta-analysis, and an experimental program to evaluate palm oil ash (POFA) as a low-impact stabilizer in compressed earth blocks (CEBs). The PRISMA review (2015–2025), supported by Bibliometrix®, compiled 49 articles on CEBs with agro-industrial waste and showed that blocks without additives achieve compressive strengths in the range of 1–3.38 MPa, while systems with industrial cementants can exceed 20 MPa, and mixtures with agro-industrial ashes range between 1 and 12 MPa, with better environmental performance. Against this background, an experimental campaign was developed with loamy soil (ML) stabilized with 0–10% POFA. The ash had Σ(SiO2+Al2O3+Fe2O3) 34.4%, LOI 40%, quartz 45%, and cristobalite 5%, as well as an alkaline leachate (pH 9.9; CE 433 μS/cm), indicating limited but effective pozzolanicity and a marked filling and stabilizing effect on the clay fraction. At 28 days, the reference CEBs reached 2.2 MPa in compression and 0.4–0.45 MPa in flexure, while the mixtures with 4–6% POFA developed 3.8–4.0 MPa and 0.6–0.7 MPa, respectively. Between 28 and 90 days, both properties continued to increase, suggesting a combination of physical densification and secondary cementation. Overall, under the investigated materials and processing conditions, POFA is a technically feasible additive for non-structural CEBs; however, broader transferability requires validation across different soils, ash sources, and durability-related indicators.
Disciplines :
Architecture Civil engineering
Author, co-author :
Mora-Ruiz, Viviana ; AVR Research Group, Faculty of Engineering, Universidad de Investigación y Desarrollo, Bucaramanga, Colombia ; Departamento de Ingeniería Civil: Construcción, E.T.S de Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Mejía Parada, Cristian Andres ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Urban and Environmental Engineering ; AVR Research Group, Faculty of Engineering, Universidad de Investigación y Desarrollo, Bucaramanga, Colombia ; Barcelona School of Architecture (ETSAB), Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya - BarcelonaTech (UPC), Barcelona, Spain
Tavera, Claudia; SIMPRA Research Group, Chemical Engineering Programme, Universidad de Pamplona, Pamplona, Colombia
Language :
English
Title :
Mechanical and microstructural performance of compressed earth blocks stabilized with palm oil fuel ash: experimental study, systematic review and meta-analysis
The authors would like to acknowledge the Departamento de Ingenier\u00EDa Civil: Construcci\u00F3n, E.T.S. de Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Universidad Polit\u00E9cnica de Madrid, and the Barcelona School of Architecture (ETSAB), Universitat Polit\u00E8cnica de Catalunya - BarcelonaTech (UPC), for their institutional support. The authors also thank the Universidad de Investigaci\u00F3n y Desarrollo (UDI) for the time it took to develop this research.
Šupić, S., Malešev, M., Radonjanin, V., Bulatović, V., Milović, T., Reactivity and pozzolanic properties of biomass ashes generated by wheat and soybean straw combustion. Materials 14 (2021), 1–20, 10.3390/ma14041004.
Tonini, D., Albizzati, P.F., Astrup, T.F., Environmental impacts of food waste: learnings and challenges from a case study on UK. Waste Manag. 76 (2018), 744–766, 10.1016/j.wasman.2018.03.032.
Li, Y., Li, L., Bindiganavile, V., Constitutive model of uniaxial compressive behavior for roller-compacted concrete using coal bottom ash entirely as fine aggregate. Buildings, 11, 2021, 10.3390/buildings11050191.
Elahi, T.E., Shahriar, A.R., Islam, M.S., Engineering characteristics of compressed Earth blocks stabilized with cement and fly ash. Constr. Build. Mater., 277, 2021, 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.122367.
Poullain, P., Leklou, N., BabatoundéLaibi, A., Gomina, M., Properties of compressed Earth blocks made of traditional materials from Benin. Rev. Compos. Matériaux Avancés 29 (2019), 233–241, 10.18280/rcma.290407.
Lejano, B.A., Gabaldon, R.J., Go, P.J., Juan, C.G., Wong, M., Compressed Earth blocks with powdered green mussel shell as partial binder and pig hair as fiber reinforcement. Int. J. GEOMATE 16 (2019), 137–143, 10.21660/2019.57.8138.
Tonduba, Y.W., Mirasa, A.K., Asrah, H., Utilization of ultrafine palm oil fuel ash in interlocking compressed Earth brick. Int. J. GEOMATE 21 (2021), 70–78, 10.21660/2021.87.j2245.
Ganou Koungang, B.M., Tchamdjou Mbouendeu, J.O., Ndapeu, D., Zhao, Z., Tchemou, G., Michel, F., Njeugna, E., Messan, A., Courard, L., Experimental thermophysical dependent mechanical analysis of Earth bricks with Canarium schweinfurthii and Cocos nucifera bio-aggregates - a case study in Cameroon. Cogent Eng., 10, 2023, 10.1080/23311916.2022.2159159.
Abdelkader, F., Mohamed, R., Cheikh, K., Amine, A.H.M., Improving the mechanical and thermal behavior of a compressed Earth block using fibers. Journal of Engineering and Sustainable Development 28 (2024), 702–709, 10.31272/jeasd.28.6.2.
Mouih, K., Hakkou, R., Mansori, M., Ghanbaja, J., Taha, Y., Kaddami, H., Synergistic effect of micro and nano cellulosic fillers on thermal insulation and mechanical strength properties of compressed Earth bricks from phosphate mining by-products. J. Build. Eng., 102, 2025, 10.1016/j.jobe.2025.112023.
Taallah, B., Guettala, A., The mechanical and physical properties of compressed Earth block stabilized with lime and filled with untreated and alkali-treated date palm fibers. Constr. Build. Mater. 104 (2016), 52–62, 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.12.007.
Ebanda, F.B., Mewoli, A.E., Njom, A.E., Kibong, M.T., Anicet Noah, P.M., Ndiwé, B., Ndengue, M.J., Biloa Otiti, S.O., Lucien Meva'a, J.R., Ateba, A., Towards sustainable construction in Cameroon : impact of tropical plant fibers on the performance of compressed Earth bricks. Innovative Infrastructure Solutions, 9, 2024, 10.1007/s41062-024-01797-8.
Mitchell, Mark, Engauge Digitizer. 2020.
Aria, M., Cuccurullo, C., Bibliometrix. 2017.
Borrego, M., Foster, M.J., Froyd, J.E., Systematic literature reviews in engineering education and other developing interdisciplinary fields. J. Eng. Educ. 103 (2014), 45–76, 10.1002/jee.20038.
Mora-Ruiz, V., Soto-Paz, J., Attia, S., Mejía-Parada, C., Sustainable earthen construction: a meta-analytical review of environmental, mechanical, and thermal performance. Buildings, 15, 2025, 10.3390/buildings15060918.
Cobo, M.J., López-Herrera, A.G., Herrera-Viedma, E., Herrera, F., An approach for detecting, quantifying, and visualizing the evolution of a research field: a practical application to the fuzzy sets theory field. J. Informetr. 5 (2011), 146–166, 10.1016/j.joi.2010.10.002.
ASTM International. Test Methods for Particle-Size Distribution (Gradation) of Soils Using Sieve Analysis. 2017, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 10.1520/D6913_D6913M-17.
ASTM International. Test Method for Particle-Size Distribution (Gradation) of Fine-Grained Soils Using the Sedimentation (Hydrometer) Analysis. 2021, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 10.1520/D7928-21E01.
ASTM International. Test Methods for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils. 2017, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 10.1520/D4318-17E01.
ASTM International. Test Methods for Chemical Analysis of Hydraulic Cement. 2024, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 10.1520/C0114-24.
ASTM International. Test Method for Determination of the Proportion of Phases in Portland Cement and Portland-Cement Clinker Using X-Ray Powder Diffraction Analysis. 2018, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 10.1520/C1365-18.
ASTM International. Standard Test Method for Determination of the Proportion of Phases in Portland Cement and Portland-Cement Clinker Using X-Ray Powder Diffraction Analysis. 2022, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 10.1520/C1723-16R22.
ASTM International. Test Methods for Loss on Ignition (LOI) of Solid Combustion Residues. 2021, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 10.1520/D7348-21.
ASTM International. Test Method for Density of Hydraulic Cement. 2017, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 10.1520/C0188-17.
ASTM International. Test Methods for Ph of Soils. 2019, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 10.1520/D4972-19.
ASTM International. Test Methods for Electrical Conductivity and Resistivity of Water. 2023, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 10.1520/D1125-23.
ASTM International. Practice for Shake Extraction of Solid Waste with Water. 2020, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 10.1520/D3987-12R20.
Yahya, Z., Al, M.M., Abdullah, B., Kamarudin, H., Nizar, K., Chemical and physical characterization of boiler ash from palm oil industry waste for geopolymer composite. Rev. Chem., 2013 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264081382.
Joy, O.A., Kolawole, O.J., Effects of compactive effort on laterite-oil palm empty fruit bunch ash mixture. Covenant Journal of Engineering Technology (CJET), 4, 2020 http://journals.covenantuniversity.edu.ng/index.php/cjet.
ASTM International. Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using Standard Effort (12,400 ft-lbf/ft3 (600 kN-m/m3)). 2021, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 10.1520/D0698-12R21.
DIN 18945:2024-03, Lehmsteine_- Anforderungen, Prüfung Und Kennzeichnung, 2024, 10.31030/3517954.
Standard XP P13-901. https://www.boutique.afnor.org/en-gb/standard/xp-p13901/earth-bricks-and-earth-blocks-for-walls-and-partitions-definitions-specific/fa202221/321764?utm_source=chatgpt.com. (Accessed 31 January 2026)
UNE 41410:2023 Bloques de Tierra Comprimida (BTC) para muros y. https://www.une.org/encuentra-tu-norma/busca-tu-norma/norma?c=N0072146&utm_source=chatgpt.com. (Accessed 31 January 2026)
NZS 4298. Nzs 4298: materials and workmanship for Earth buildings. New Zeal. Tech. Committe, 4298, 1998, 91.
E2392/E2392M. Standard Guide for Design of Earthen Wall Building Systems. https://store.astm.org/e2392_e2392m-24.html?utm_source=chatgpt.com. (Accessed 31 January 2026)
ASTM International. Test Methods for Sampling and Testing Brick and Structural Clay Tile. 2021, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 10.1520/C0067_C0067M-21.
ASTM International. Test Method for Flexural Strength of Hydraulic-Cement Mortars. 2021, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 10.1520/C0348-21.
Brahim, M., Ndiaye, K., Aggoun, S., Maherzi, W., Valorization of dredged sediments in manufacturing compressed Earth blocks stabilized by alkali-activated fly ash binder. Buildings, 12, 2022, 10.3390/buildings12040419.
Limami, H., Manssouri, I., Noureddine, O., Erba, S., Sahbi, H., Khaldoun, A., Effect of reinforced recycled sawdust-fibers additive on the performance of ecological compressed Earth bricks. J. Build. Eng., 68, 2023, 10.1016/j.jobe.2023.106140.
Thennarasan Latha, A., Murugesan, B., Skariah Thomas, B., Compressed Earth block reinforced with sisal fiber and stabilized with cement: manual compaction procedure and influence of addition on mechanical properties. Mater. Today Proc., 2023, 10.1016/j.matpr.2023.04.373.
Abessolo, D., Biwole, A.B., Fokwa, D., Ganou Koungang, B.M., Yembe, B.B.A.A.H., Physical, mechanical and hygroscopic behaviour of compressed Earth blocks stabilized with cement and reinforced with bamboo fibres. Int. J. Eng. Res. Afr. 59 (2022), 29–41, 10.4028/p-spbskv.
Bouchefra, I., EL Bichri, F.Z., Chehouani, H., Benhamou, B., Mechanical and thermophysical properties of compressed Earth brick rienforced by raw and treated doum fibers. Constr. Build. Mater., 318, 2022, 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.126031.
Brahim, M., Ndiaye, K., Aggoun, S., Durability and stability performance of compressed earth blocks (CEB) made with sediment and FA. Front. Eng. Built Environ. 5 (2025), 173–191, 10.1108/FEBE-10-2024-0068.
Yatawara, M., Athukorala, S., Potential of replacing clay soil by rice husk ash (RHA) in enhancing the properties of compressed Earth blocks (CEBs). Environ. Dev. Sustain. 23 (2021), 3474–3486, 10.1007/s10668-020-00727-9.
Djadouf, S., Chelouah, N., Tahakourt, A., The influence of the addition of ground olive stone on the thermo-mechanical behavior of compressed Earth blocks. Matériaux Tech., 108, 2020, 10.1051/mattech/2020023.
Cabrera, S., Elert, K., Guilarducci, A., Margasin, A., The effect of local pozzolans and lime additions on the miner-alogical, physical and mechanical properties of compressed Earth blocks in Argentina. Revista de La Construccion 21 (2022), 248–263, 10.7764/RDLC.21.2.248.
Nshimiyimana, P., Messan, A., Courard, L., Physico-mechanical and hygro-thermal properties of compressed Earth blocks stabilized with industrial and agro by-product binders. Materials, 13, 2020, 10.3390/ma13173769.
Lawane, A., Minane, J.R., Vinai, R., Pantet, A., Mechanical and physical properties of stabilised compressed coal bottom ash blocks with inclusion of lateritic soils in Niger. Sci. Afr., 6, 2019, 10.1016/j.sciaf.2019.e00198.
Rivera, J., Coelho, J., Silva, R., Miranda, T., Castro, F., Cristelo, N., Compressed Earth blocks stabilized with glass waste and fly ash activated with a recycled alkaline cleaning solution. J. Clean. Prod., 284, 2021, 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124783.
Mostafa, M., Uddin, N., Experimental analysis of Compressed Earth Block (CEB) with banana fibers resisting flexural and compression forces. Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 5 (2016), 53–63, 10.1016/j.cscm.2016.07.001.
Laibi, A.B., Poullain, P., Leklou, N., Gomina, M., Sohounhloué, D.K.C., Influence of the kenaf fiber length on the mechanical and thermal properties of Compressed Earth Blocks (CEB). KSCE J. Civ. Eng. 22 (2018), 785–793, 10.1007/s12205-017-1968-9.
Jiménez-Montoya, A., Pascual-Francisco, J.B., Sánchez-Cruz, G., Ríos-Ledezma, M.G., Novelo-Ramos, J.K., Matías-Molina, A.L., Soil and cement bricks with diverse reinforcements: a Review. Revista Politecnica 53 (2024), 97–113, 10.33333/rp.vol53n2.10.
Oubaha, S., Hakkou, R., Taha, Y., Mghazli, M.O., Benzaazoua, M., Elaboration of compressed Earth blocks based on phosphogypsum and phosphate mining by-products. J. Build. Eng., 62, 2022, 10.1016/j.jobe.2022.105423.
Paul, S., Islam, M.S., Elahi, T.E., Potential of waste rice husk ash and cement in making compressed stabilized Earth blocks: strength, durability and life cycle assessment. J. Build. Eng., 73, 2023, 10.1016/j.jobe.2023.106727.
Lea, F.M., Hewlett, P.C., Liska, Martin, Lea's Chemistry of Cement and Concrete. 2019, Butterworth-Heinemann.
Pacheco-Torgal, F., Jalali, S., Earth construction: lessons from the past for future eco-efficient construction. Constr. Build. Mater. 29 (2012), 512–519, 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.10.054.
Scrivener, Karen, Snellings, Ruben, Lothenbach, Barbara, A Practical Guide to Microstructural Analysis of Cementitious Materials. 2016, CRC Press.
Dabakuyo, I., Mutuku, R.N.N., Onchiri, R.O., Mechanical properties of compressed Earth block stabilized with sugarcane molasses and Metakaolin-based geopolymer. Civil Engineering Journal (Iran) 8 (2022), 780–795, 10.28991/CEJ-2022-08-04-012.
Gómez-Casero, M.A., Moral-Moral, F.J., Pérez-Villarejo, L., Sánchez-Soto, P.J., Eliche-Quesada, D., Synthesis of clay geopolymers using olive pomace fly ash as an alternative activator. Influence of the additional commercial alkaline activator used. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 12 (2021), 1762–1776, 10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.03.102.
Belayali, F., Maherzi, W., Benzerzour, M., Abriak, N.E., Senouci, A., Compressed Earth blocks using sediments and alkali-activated byproducts. Sustainability, 14, 2022, 10.3390/su14063158.
Minguela, A.F., Bio-composites to tackle UK built environment carbon emissions: comparative analysis on load-bearing capacity, hygroscopic and thermal performance of compressed Earth blocks with addition of industrial Hemp waste. Open Construct. Build Technol. J. 11 (2017), 395–412, 10.2174/1874836801711010395.
Mohammed, A.A., Yahia, H.A.M., Mohammed, H.A., Abdulhadi, I.M., Alelweet, O.A., Maseer, M.M., The durability of innovative blocks through cyclic testing and actual climate exposure. Progress in Engineering Science, 2, 2025, 10.1016/j.pes.2025.100050.
Nshimiyimana, P., Messan, A., Zhao, Z., Courard, L., Chemico-microstructural changes in earthen building materials containing calcium carbide residue and rice husk ash. Constr. Build. Mater. 216 (2019), 622–631, 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.05.037.
Hany, E., Fouad, N., Abdel-Wahab, M., Sadek, E., Investigating the mechanical and thermal properties of compressed earth bricks made by eco-friendly stabilization materials as partial or full replacement of cement. Constr. Build. Mater., 281, 2021, 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.122535.
Mostafa, M., Uddin, N., Effect of banana fibers on the compressive and flexural strength of compressed earth blocks. Buildings 5 (2015), 282–296, 10.3390/buildings5010282.
