Achieving low-carbon electricity operations in net zero energy residential buildings through plug-in battery energy storage systems

Amaripadath, Deepak; Sailor, David J.; Khan, Ansar; Bertini, Aurora; Attia, Shady

doi:10.1016/j.est.2026.120964

Article (Scientific journals)

Achieving low-carbon electricity operations in net zero energy residential buildings through plug-in battery energy storage systems

Amaripadath, Deepak; Sailor, David J.; Khan, Ansar et al.

2026 • In Journal of Energy Storage, 153 (B), p. 120964

Peer Reviewed verified by ORBi

Permalink
https://hdl.handle.net/2268/341232

DOI
10.1016/j.est.2026.120964

Files (1)Send to Details Statistics Bibliography Similar publications

Files

Full Text

Achieving low-carbon electricity operations in net zero energy residential buildings.pdf

Author postprint (7.82 MB)

Creative Commons License - Attribution, Non-Commercial, No Derivative

Download

All documents in ORBi are protected by a user license.

Send to

RIS BibTex APA Chicago Permalink X Linkedin

Details

Abstract :

[en] Greenhouse gas emissions from building operations contribute significantly to global emissions. Although net zero energy buildings have been developed to reduce operational energy use, net zero emission operations are not always achieved. Plug-in battery energy storage systems enable building operations using renewable energy sources at night, when photovoltaic systems are intermittent. The application of 24/7 carbon-free energy metrics in the context of plug-in battery energy storage systems in timber residential buildings in the study advances the existing knowledge base. The building performance was assessed using high-resolution dynamic grid emission factors from utility grids across the Group of Seven Countries. Study results indicate that plug-in battery energy storage systems increase electricity use intensity due to energy losses during charging and discharging cycles. However, operational emission intensity is highly dependent on the dynamic grid emission factors. Locations with higher daytime carbon intensity, such as Tokyo, showed an increase, whereas locations with higher nighttime carbon intensity, such as Berlin, showed a decrease. Diurnal analysis revealed increases in daytime electricity use intensity and operational emission intensity during charging cycles, while discharging cycles led to decreases in these metrics during nighttime. Furthermore, the 24/7 carbon-free energy analysis demonstrated improvements ranging from 1.8% in Paris to 32.3% in Tokyo with plug-in battery energy storage systems, highlighting the strong influence of low-carbon electricity sources in the utility grid. The research findings emphasized the importance of integrating plug-in battery energy storage systems into net zero energy residential buildings to enhance low-carbon electricity operations and self-consumption.

Disciplines :

Architecture

Author, co-author :

Amaripadath, Deepak ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Urban and Environmental Engineering

Sailor, David J.

Khan, Ansar

Bertini, Aurora ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Urban and Environmental Engineering

Attia, Shady ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département ArGEnCo > Techniques de construction des bâtiments ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Urban and Environmental Engineering

Language :

English

Title :

Achieving low-carbon electricity operations in net zero energy residential buildings through plug-in battery energy storage systems

Publication date :

01 April 2026

Journal title :

Journal of Energy Storage

ISSN :

2352-1538

eISSN :

2352-152X

Publisher :

Elsevier, Oxford, United Kingdom

Volume :

153

Issue :

Pages :

120964

Peer reviewed :

Peer Reviewed verified by ORBi

Development Goals :

11. Sustainable cities and communities
7. Affordable and clean energy

Additional URL :

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352152X26006286?via%3Dihub

Available on ORBi :

since 10 February 2026

Statistics

Number of views

32 (8 by ULiège)

Number of downloads

38 (0 by ULiège)

More statistics

Scopus citations^®

Scopus citations^®
without self-citations

OpenCitations

OpenAlex citations

Bibliography

WorldGBC. (2022). Bringing embodied carbon upfront - Coordinated action for the building and construction sector to tackle embodied carbon. World Green Building Council, London, United Kingdom. [Online]. Available at: https://worldgbc.s3.eu-west-2.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/22123951/WorldGBC_Bringing_Embodied_Carbon_Upfront.pdf. Accessed on Jan. 03, 2025.
UN, The Paris Agreement. United Nations Climate Action. [Online], 2024 Available at: https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/paris-agreement. (Accessed 6 December 2024)
Schleussner, C.-F., Rogelj, J., Schaeffer, M., Lissner, T., Licker, R., Fischer, E.M., Knutti, R., Levermann, A., Frieler, K., Hare, W., Science and policy characteristics of the Paris agreement temperature goal. Nat. Clim. Chang. 6:9 (2016), 827–835, 10.1038/nclimate3096.
Horup, L.H., Birgisdóttir, H., Ryberg, M.W., Defining dynamic science-based climate change budgets for countries and absolute sustainable building targets. Build. Environ., 230, 2023, 109936, 10.1016/j.buildenv.2022.109936.
Attia, S., Benzidane, C., Rahif, R., Amaripadath, D., Hamdy, M., Holzer, P., Koch, A., Maas, A., Moosberger, S., Petersen, S., Mavrogianni, A., Maria Hidalgo-Betanzos, J., Almeida, M., Akander, J., Khosravi Bakhtiari, H., Kinnane, O., Kosonen, R., Carlucci, S., Overheating calculation methods, criteria, and indicators in European regulation for residential buildings. Energ. Buildings, 292, 2023, 113170, 10.1016/j.enbuild.2023.113170.
Wu, W., Skye, H.M., Residential net-zero energy buildings: Review and perspective. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev., 142, 2021, 110859, 10.1016/j.rser.2021.110859.
Amaripadath, D., Sailor, D.J., Bertini, A., Barker, M., Attia, S., Are net zero energy buildings necessarily also net zero emission buildings? Time-integrated analysis using dynamic grid emission factors. Build. Environ., 283, 2025, 113367, 10.1016/j.buildenv.2025.113367.
Lai, C.S., Jia, Y., Lai, L.L., Xu, Z., McCulloch, M.D., Wong, K.P., A comprehensive review on large-scale photovoltaic system with applications of electrical energy storage. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 78 (2017), 439–451, 10.1016/j.rser.2017.04.078.
Xu, X., Fu, Y., Luo, Y., Building energy flexibility with battery energy storage system: A comprehensive review. Discov. Mech. Eng., 1(1), 2022, 4, 10.1007/s44245-022-00004-1.
USGBC, Resilience leadership program U ser guide to mandatory requirements – RELi version 2.0 projects. U.S. Green Building Council, 2021, Washington D.C., USA [online]. Available at: https://www.gbci.org/sites/default/files/RELi%20mandatory%20users%20guide.pdf Accessed on: Feb. 24, 2025.
Hepf, C., Bausch, K., Lauss, L., Koth, S.C., Auer, T., Impact of dynamic emission factors of the German electricity mix on the greenhouse gas balance in building operation. Buildings, 12(12), 2022, 10.3390/buildings12122215.
St-Jacques, M., Bucking, S., O'Brien, W., Macdonald, I., Spatio-temporal electrical grid emission factors effects on calculated GHG emissions of buildings in mixed-grid environments. Sci. Technol. Built Environ. 30:1 (2023), 37–50, 10.1080/23744731.2023.2276012.
St-Jacques, M., Bucking, S., O'Brien, W., Spatially and temporally sensitive consumption-based emission factors from mixed-use electrical grids for building electrical use. Energ. Buildings, 224, 2020, 110249, 10.1016/j.enbuild.2020.110249.
Schram, W., Louwen, A., Lampropoulos, I., van Sark, W., Comparison of the greenhouse gas emission reduction potential of energy communities. Energies, 12(23), 2019, 4440, 10.3390/en12234440.
Li, C., Pan, Y., Liu, Z., Liang, Y., Yuan, X., Huang, Z., Zhou, N., Optimal design of building envelope towards life cycle performance: Impact of considering dynamic grid emission factors. Energ. Buildings, 323, 2024, 114770, 10.1016/j.enbuild.2024.114770.
Dworatzek, L., Santucci, D., van Treeck, C., Assessing the impact of local energy generation and storage to achieve the decarbonization of the single-family housing stock in Germany. Energ. Buildings, 327, 2025, 115068, 10.1016/j.enbuild.2024.115068.
De Loma-Osorio, I., Borge-Diez, D., Herskind Sejr, J., Rosales-Asensio, E., Enhancing commercial building resiliency through microgrids with distributed energy sources and battery energy storage systems. Energ. Buildings, 325, 2024, 114980, 10.1016/j.enbuild.2024.114980.
Zhang, X., Li, Y., Xiao, F., Gao, W., Energy efficiency measures towards decarbonizing Japanese residential sector: Techniques, application evidence and future perspectives. Energ. Buildings, 319, 2024, 114514, 10.1016/j.enbuild.2024.114514.
Zhou, Y., Zheng, S., Machine-learning based hybrid demand-side controller for high-rise office buildings with high energy flexibilities. Appl. Energy, 262, 2020, 114416, 10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.114416.
Zhou, Y., Cao, S., Quantification of energy flexibility of residential net-zero-energy buildings involved with dynamic operations of hybrid energy storages and diversified energy conversion strategies. Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks, 21, 2020, 100304, 10.1016/j.segan.2020.100304.
Ge, M., Friedrich, J., Vigna, L., Where do emissions come from? 4 charts explain greenhouse gas emissions by sector. 2024, World resource institute, Washington D.C., USA [online]. Available at: https://www.wri.org/insights/4-charts-explain-greenhouse-gas-emissions-countries-and-sectors Accessed on: Jan. 06, 2025.
Zhong, X., Hu, M., Deetman, S., Steubing, B., Lin, H.X., Hernandez, G.A., Harpprecht, C., Zhang, C., Tukker, A., Behrens, P., Global greenhouse gas emissions from residential and commercial building materials and mitigation strategies to 2060. Nat. Commun., 12(1), 2021, 6126, 10.1038/s41467-021-26212-z.
Bertini, A., Al-Obaidy, M., Dasse, M., Amaripadath, D., Gobbo, E., Attia, S., Parametrization of variables affecting the whole life carbon performance of nearly zero energy residential building renovation. Build. Environ., 278, 2025, 113013, 10.1016/j.buildenv.2025.113013.
Watch, Climate, Historical GHG emissions. World resources institute, Washington D.C., USA. [online]. Available at: https://www.climatewatchdata.org/ghg-emissions, 2022.
Vigna, L., Friedrich, J., 9 charts explain per capita greenhouse gas emissions by country. World resources institute, Washington, D.C., USA. [online]. Available at: https://www.wri.org/insights/charts-explain-per-capita-greenhouse-gas-emissions, 2023.
Li, M., Shan, R., Virguez, E., Patiño-Echeverri, D., Gao, S., Ma, H., Energy storage reduces costs and emissions even without large penetration of renewable energy: The case of China Southern Power Grid. Energy Policy, 161, 2022, 112711, 10.1016/j.enpol.2021.112711.
Cosgrove, P., Roulstone, T., Zachary, S., Intermittency and periodicity in net-zero renewable energy systems with storage. Renew. Energy 212 (2023), 299–307, 10.1016/j.renene.2023.04.135.
Arun, M., Samal, S., Barik, D., Chandran, S.S.R., Tudu, K., Praveenkumar, S., Integration of energy storage systems and grid modernization for reliable urban power management toward future energy sustainability. J. Energy Storage, 114, 2025, 115830, 10.1016/j.est.2025.115830.
Chatzigeorgiou, N.G., Theocharides, S., Makrides, G., Georghiou, G.E., A review on battery energy storage systems: Applications, developments, and research trends of hybrid installations in the end-user sector. J. Energy Storage, 86, 2024, 111192, 10.1016/j.est.2024.111192.
Huang, B., Xing, K., Ness, D., Liao, L., Huang, K., Xie, P., Huang, J., Rethinking carbon–neutral built environment: Urban dynamics and scenario analysis. Energ. Buildings, 255, 2022, 111672, 10.1016/j.enbuild.2021.111672.
He, B.-J., Prasad, D., Delivering a net zero carbon built environment – Targets and pathways. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci., 1122(1), 2022, 012001, 10.1088/1755-1315/1122/1/012001.
Park, A.-H.A., Williams, J.M., Friedmann, J., Hanson, D., Kawashima, S., Sick, V., Taha, M.R., Wilcox, J., Challenges and opportunities for the built environment in a carbon-constrained world for the next 100 years and beyond. Front. Energy Res., 12, 2024, 10.3389/fenrg.2024.1388516.
Raza, A., Jingzhao, L., Ghadi, Y., Adnan, M., Ali, M., Smart home energy management systems: Research challenges and survey. Alex. Eng. J. 92 (2024), 117–170, 10.1016/j.aej.2024.02.033.
Yang, J., Liu, J., Fang, Z., Liu, W., Electricity scheduling strategy for home energy management system with renewable energy and battery storage: A case study. IET Renewable Power Generation 12:6 (2018), 639–648, 10.1049/iet-rpg.2017.0330.
Gomes, I.L.R., Ruano, M.G., Ruano, A.E., MILP-based model predictive control for home energy management systems: A real case study in Algarve, Portugal. Energ. Buildings, 281, 2023, 112774, 10.1016/j.enbuild.2023.112774.
IEA-EBC Annex 89, Ways to implement net-zero whole life carbon buildings. [Online]. 2023 Available at: https://annex89.iea-ebc.org/. (Accessed 6 December 2024)
ANSI/ASHRAE (2020). ASHRAE Standard 169: Climatic Data for Building Design Standards. Atlanta, GA, USA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers. https://www.ashrae.org/file%20library/technical%20resources/standards%20and%20guidelines/standards%20addenda/169_2020_a_20211029.pdf.
Crawley, D.B., Lawrie, L.K., Winkelmann, F.C., Buhl, W.F., Huang, Y.J., Pedersen, C.O., Strand, R.K., Liesen, R.J., Fisher, D.E., Witte, M.J., Glazer, J., EnergyPlus: Creating a new-generation building energy simulation program. Energ. Buildings 33:4 (2001), 319–331, 10.1016/S0378-7788(00)00114-6.
Amaripadath, D., Sailor, D.J., Reassessing energy-efficient passive retrofits in terms of indoor environmental quality in residential buildings in the United States. Energ. Buildings, 319, 2024, 114564, 10.1016/j.enbuild.2024.114564.
Lawrie, L. K, Crawley, D. B. (2022). Development of global typical meteorological years (TMYx). [online]. Available at: https://climate.onebuilding.org/. Accessed on: Oct. 07, 2024.
Parker, D.S., Panchabikesan, K., Crawley, D.B., Lawrie, L.K., Impact of newer climate data for technical analysis of residential building energy use in the United States. Energ. Buildings, 323, 2024, 114828, 10.1016/j.enbuild.2024.114828.
Maps, Electricity, Granular electricity data for scope 2 carbon accounting. Copenhagen, Denmark. [online]. Available at: https://www.electricitymaps.com/, 2024.
Peters, J.F., Iribarren, D., Juez Martel, P., Burguillo, M., Hourly marginal electricity mixes and their relevance for assessing the environmental performance of installations with variable load or power. Sci. Total Environ., 843, 2022, 156963, 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156963.
Maps, Electricity, Canada (Ontario) 2023 hourly carbon intensity data. Electricity Maps. [Online]., 2024 Available at: https://www.electricitymaps.com/data-portal/canada Accessed on Oct. 02, 2024.
Maps, Electricity, France 2023 hourly carbon intensity data. Electricity Maps. [Online]., 2024 Available at: https://www.electricitymaps.com/data-portal/france Accessed on Oct. 02, 2024.
Maps, Electricity, Germany 2023 hourly carbon intensity data. Electricity Maps. [Online]., 2024 Available at: https://www.electricitymaps.com/data-portal/germany Accessed on Oct. 02, 2024.
Maps, Electricity, Italy 2023 hourly carbon intensity data. Electricity Maps. [Online]., 2024 Available at: https://www.electricitymaps.com/data-portal/italy Accessed on Oct. 02, 2024.
Maps, Electricity, Japan 2023 hourly carbon intensity data. Electricity Maps. [Online]., 2024 Available at: https://www.electricitymaps.com/data-portal/japan Accessed on Oct. 02, 2024.
Maps, Electricity, Great Britain 2023 hourly carbon intensity data. Electricity Maps. [Online]., 2024 Available at: https://www.electricitymaps.com/data-portal/great-britain Accessed on Oct. 02, 2024.
Maps, Electricity, USA 2023 hourly carbon intensity data. Electricity Maps. [Online]., 2024 Available at: https://www.electricitymaps.com/data-portal/united-states-of-america Accessed on Oct. 02, 2024.
Corradi, O., Estimating the marginal carbon intensity of electricity with machine learning. Electricity Maps Blog. [Online], 2018 Available at: https://www.electricitymaps.com/blog/marginal-carbon-intensity-of-electricity-with-machine-learning. (Accessed 14 January 2025)
Amaripadath, D., Levinson, R., Rawal, R., Attia, S., Multi-criteria decision support framework for climate change-sensitive thermal comfort evaluation in European buildings. Energ. Buildings, 303, 2024, 113804, 10.1016/j.enbuild.2023.113804.
Attia, S., Gobin, C., Climate change effects on Belgian households: A case study of a nearly zero energy building. Energies, 13(20), 2020, 5357, 10.3390/en13205357.
Mlecnik, E., Attia, S., Van Loon, S., Net zero energy building: A review of current definitions and definition development in Belgium. In Proceedings of Passive House., 2011 https://hdl.handle.net/2268/167481.
ASHRAE. (2011). ASHRAE 140 Standard Method of Test for the Evaluation of Building Energy Analysis Computer Programs. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.: Atlanta, GA, USA, 2011.
Gobin, C., Bâtiments d'aujourd'hui, Climat de demain : Évaluation de l'impact du réchauffement climatique sur le confort thermique et l'efficacité énergétique d'un bâtiment résidentiel passif existant en Belgique. 2016, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium http://hdl.handle.net/2268.2/1548.
ISO, ISO 17772-1: Energy performance of buildings-indoor environmental quality. Part 1: Indoor environmental input parameters for the design and assessment of energy performance in buildings. International Standards Organization, 2017, Geneva, Switzerland.
Attia, S., Building Energy Model for a Timber Nearly-Zero Energy Building: Kettenis House in Belgium (V1). 2021, [Dataset]. Harvard Dataverse, 10.7910/DVN/LC9LLU.
Van den Eeckhout, J., What does plug and play mean for home batteries?. MyGrid. [Online]., 2025 Available at: https://www.mygrid.energy/post/what-does-plug-and-play-mean-for-home-batteries Accessed on Oct. 08, 2025.
O'Connor, B., Residential energy storage system regulations. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, USA. [online]. Available at: https://www.nfpa.org/news-blogs-and-articles/blogs/2021/10/01/residential-energy-storage-system-regulations, 2021.
Farhad, S., Nazari, A., Introducing the energy efficiency map of lithium-ion batteries. Int. J. Energy Res. 43:2 (2019), 931–944, 10.1002/er.4332.
Al-Refai, A., Alkhateeb, A., Dalala, Z.M., Enhancing the LCO 18,650 battery charging/discharging using temperature and electrical based model. Batteries, 8(11), 2022, 199, 10.3390/batteries8110199.
He, H., Xiong, R., Zhang, X., Sun, F., Fan, J., State-of-charge estimation of the Lithium-ion battery using an adaptive extended Kalman filter based on an improved Thevenin model. IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. 60:4 (2011), 1461–1469, 10.1109/TVT.2011.2132812.
Charkhgard, M., Farrokhi, M., State-of-charge estimation for Lithium-ion batteries using neural networks and EKF. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 57:12 (2010), 4178–4187, 10.1109/TIE.2010.2043035.
Federal Aviation Administration. (2019). An Analysis of State of Charge in Lithium-ion Batteries. United States Department of Transportation, Washington, D. C., USA. [Online]. Available at: https://www.fire.tc.faa.gov/pdf/tctn22-27.pdf. Accessed on Jan 26, 2025.
Wang, H., Wang, C., Jiang, C., Zhou, J., Liu, W., Ji, Z., Meng, G., Zhao, F., High-power charging strategy within key SOC ranges based on heat generation of lithium-ion traction battery. J. Energy Storage, 72, 2023, 108125, 10.1016/j.est.2023.108125.
Lu, J., Liu, S., Zhang, J., Han, S., Zhou, X., Liu, Y., Charging and discharging optimization of vehicle battery efficiency for minimizing company expenses considering regular user travel habits. Processes, 12(3), 2024, 435, 10.3390/pr12030435.
Haseli, Y., Chapter One—Fundamental concepts. Haseli, Y., (eds.) Entropy Analysis in Thermal Engineering Systems, 2020, Academic Press, 1–11, 10.1016/B978-0-12-819168-2.00001-5.
UN, 24/7 Carbon-free Energy Compact. United Nations Energy. [Online], 2024 Available at: https://www.un.org/en/energy-compacts/page/compact-247-carbon-free-energy. (Accessed 30 October 2024)
Google, 24/7 carbon-free energy: Methodologies and metrics. Google LLC. [Online]., 2021 Available at: https://www.gstatic.com/gumdrop/sustainability/24x7-carbon-free-energy-methodologies-metrics.pdf Accessed on Dec. 04, 2024.
Luo, Z., Peng, J., Cao, J., Yin, R., Zou, B., Tan, Y., Yan, J., Demand flexibility of residential buildings: Definitions, flexible loads, and quantification methods. Engineering 16 (2022), 123–140, 10.1016/j.eng.2022.01.010.
Starzyk, A., Cortiços, N.D., Duarte, C.C., Łacek, P., Timber architecture for sustainable futures: A critical review of design and research challenges in the era of environmental and social transition. Buildings, 15(15), 2025, 2774, 10.3390/buildings15152774.
Emilsson, E., Dahllöf, L., Lithium-ion vehicle battery production - status 2019 on energy use, CO2 emissions, use of metals, products environmental footprint, and recycling. IVL Swedish environmental research institute, Stockholm, Sweden. [online]. Available at: https://ivl.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1549551/FULLTEXT01.pdf, 2019.
Avelar, V., Zacho, M., Battery Technology for Single Phase UPS systems: VRLA vs. Li-ion. IVL Schneider electric, Paris, France. [online]. Available at: https://download.schneider-electric.com/files?p_Doc_Ref=SPD_VAVR-AS7U7K_EN&p_enDocType=White+Paper&p_File_Name=VAVR-AS7U7K_R1_EN.pdf, 2017.
Rodriguez, S.G., Trousdale, P., Crone, E., Deploying long-duration energy storage in Virginia. Center for Climate and Energy Solutions, Washington D.C., USA. [online]. Available at: https://www.c2es.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Deploying-Long-Duration-Energy-Storage-in-Virginia.pdf, 2024.
CEC. (2022). 2022 High-rise Multifamily Battery Storage Systems. California Energy Commission, Sacramento, CA, USA. [Online]. Available at: https://www.energy.ca.gov/programs-and-topics/programs/building-energy-efficiency-standards/energy-code-support-center/2022-4. Accessed on: Oct. 14, 2025.
EU. (2024). Achievements of the von der Leyen Commission - The European Green Deal. European Commission, Brussels, Belgium. [Online]. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/api/files/attachment/879954/3%20European%20Green%20Deal.pdf. Accessed on: Oct. 20, 2025.
EU. (2025). EU action to address the energy crisis. European Commission, Brussels, Belgium. [Online]. Available at: https://commission.europa.eu/topics/energy/eu-action-address-energy-crisis_en. Accessed on: Oct. 20, 2025.
EU. (2025). EU's new strategy to shape a global clean and resilient transition. European Commission, Brussels, Belgium. [Online]. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_25_2389. Accessed on: Oct. 20, 2025.
Tranberg, B., Corradi, O., Lajoie, B., Gibon, T., Staffell, I., Andresen, G.B., Real-time carbon accounting method for the European electricity markets. Energ. Strat. Rev., 26, 2019, 100367, 10.1016/j.esr.2019.100367.
Torcellini, P, Pless, S, Deru, M, & Crawley, D. B. (2006). Zero Energy Buildings: A Critical Look at the Definition,” ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, vol. 3, pp. 417–428. [Online]. Available at: https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy06osti/39833.pdf. Accessed on: Feb. 24, 2025.
Kamer, Eerste, Wet beëindiging salderingsregeling aangenomen. Eerste Kamer der Staten General, The Netherlands. [Online]. Available at: https://www.eerstekamer.nl/nieuws/20241217/wet_beeindiging_salderingsregeling, 2024 Accessed on: Feb. 24, 2025.
Reuters. (2024). Germany to mandate open market sales for new wind, solar plants. Reuters, London, United Kingdom. [Online]. Available at: https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/germany-mandate-open-market-sales-new-wind-solar-plants-2024-11-13/. Accessed on: Feb. 24, 2025.
Powers, M., Net-metering changes are sweeping the country. Here's how solar companies can prepare. Solar power world, Cleveland, oh, USA. [online]. Available at: https://www.solarpowerworldonline.com/2025/02/net-metering-changes-are-sweeping-the-country-heres-how-solar-companies-can-prepare/, 2025.
Hydro- Québec. (2025). GHG emissions and Hydro-Québec electricity, hydro- Québec, Montreal, Canada. [Online]. Available at: https://www.hydroquebec.com/sustainable-development/specialized-documentation/ghg-emissions.html. Accessed on: Sep. 15, 2025.
Entso-e., Dashboard, Entso-e transparency platform, Brussels. Belgium. [Online]., 2025 https://www.entsoe.eu/ Accessed on: Sep. 15, 2025.
D-Sharing, Hourly emission factors of Japan's 10 Powergrid is now available, D-Sharing, Tokyo. Japan. [Online]., 2025 https://www.d-sharing.jp/blog/hourly-emission-factors-of-japan-s-10-powergrid-is-now-available Accessed on: Sep. 15, 2025.
Shimada, H., Honda, T., Imamura, Y., Gonocruz, R.A., Ozawa, A., Revealing temporal and spatial variations in CO2 emission factor of electricity generation in Japan. Energy, 326, 2025, 136237, 10.1016/j.energy.2025.136237.
NESO, Carbon intensity API, National Energy System Operator, Warwick, United Kingdom. [online]. https://carbonintensity.org.uk/, 2025.
USEPA, Emissions & Generation Resource Integrated Database (eGRID), United States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington D.C., United States. [online]. https://www.epa.gov/egrid, 2025.
Arshad, F., Lin, J., Manurkar, N., Fan, E., Ahmad, A., Tariq, M.-N., Wu, F., Chen, R., Li, L., Life cycle assessment of Lithium-ion batteries: A critical review. Resour. Conserv. Recycl., 180, 2022, 106164, 10.1016/j.resconrec.2022.106164.
Song, A., Dan, Z., Zheng, S., Zhou, Y., An electricity-driven mobility circular economy with lifecycle carbon footprints for climate-adaptive carbon neutrality transformation. Nat. Commun., 15(1), 2024, 5905, 10.1038/s41467-024-49868-9.
Song, A., Zhang, X., Dan, Z., Zhou, Y., Lifecycle carbon intensity with embodied emissions of battery and hydrogen-driven integrative low-carbon systems. Communications Engineering, 4(1), 2025, 84, 10.1038/s44172-025-00411-8.
Jivaganont, P., Limthongkul, P., Mongkoltanatas, J., Profitability of battery energy storage system coupled with photovoltaic at behind-the-meter. J. Energy Storage, 121, 2025, 116357, 10.1016/j.est.2025.116357.
Wang, Z., Luther, M., Horan, P., Matthews, J., Liu, C., Technical and economic analyses of PV battery systems considering two different tariff policies. Sol. Energy, 267, 2024, 112189, 10.1016/j.solener.2023.112189.
BloombergNEF, Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Prices Hit Record Low of $139/kWh. Bloomberg New Energy Finance. 2023, New York, NY, USA [Online]. Available at https://about.bnef.com/blog/lithium-ion-battery-pack-prices-hit-record-low-of-139-kwh/ Accessed on Jan. 22, 2025.
IRENA, Electricity storage and renewables: Costs and markets to 2030. International renewable energy agency, Abu Dhabi, UAE. [online]. Available at: https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2017/Oct/IRENA_Electricity_Storage_Costs_2017.pdf, 2017.
Tehrani, A.A., Sobhaninia, S., Nikookar, N., Levinson, R., Sailor, D.J., Amaripadath, D., Data-driven approach to estimate urban heat island impacts on building energy consumption. Energy, 316, 2025, 134508, 10.1016/j.energy.2025.134508.
Al-Assaad, D., Sengupta, A., An, P., Breesch, H., Afshari, A., Amaripadath, D., Attia, S., Baba, F., Corrado, V., Eli, L., Krelling, A.F., Lee, S.H., Levinson, R., Olinger, M., P․Tootkaboni, M., Wang, L. (Leon), Zhang, C., Zinzi, M., Resilient passive cooling strategies during heat waves: A quantitative assessment in different climates. Build. Environ., 274, 2025, 112698, 10.1016/j.buildenv.2025.112698.
Hannan, M.A., Al-Shetwi, A.Q., Begum, R.A., Jern Ker, P., Rahman, S.A., Mansor, M., Mia, M.S., Muttaqi, K.M., Dong, Z.Y., Impact assessment of battery energy storage systems towards achieving sustainable development goals. J. Energy Storage, 42, 2021, 103040, 10.1016/j.est.2021.103040.
Salameh, T., Kumar, P.P., Olabi, A.G., Obaideen, K., Sayed, E.T., Maghrabie, H.M., Abdelkareem, M.A., Best battery storage technologies of solar photovoltaic systems for desalination plant using the results of multi optimization algorithms and sustainable development goals. J. Energy Storage, 55, 2022, 105312, 10.1016/j.est.2022.105312.