Living tissue and organ donation by minors: Suggestions to improve the regulatory framework in Europe

Van Assche, Kristof; Thys, Kristof; Vansweevelt, Thierry; Genicot, Gilles; Borry, Pascal; Sterckx, Sigrid

doi:10.1177/0968533216660877

Download

Article (Scientific journals)

Living tissue and organ donation by minors: Suggestions to improve the regulatory framework in Europe

Van Assche, Kristof; Thys, Kristof; Vansweevelt, Thierry et al.

2016 • In Medical Law International, 16, p. 58-93

Peer Reviewed verified by ORBi

Permalink
https://hdl.handle.net/2268/340571

DOI
10.1177/0968533216660877

Files (1)Send to Details Statistics Bibliography Similar publications

Files

Full Text

Living Tissue and Organ Donation by Minors.pdf

Author postprint (335.45 kB)

Download

All documents in ORBi are protected by a user license.

Send to

RIS BibTex APA Chicago Permalink X Linkedin

Details

Disciplines :

Law, criminology & political science: Multidisciplinary, general & others

Author, co-author :

Van Assche, Kristof; UA - Universiteit Antwerpen

Thys, Kristof; KU Leuven - Katholieke Universiteit Leuven

Vansweevelt, Thierry; UA - Universiteit Antwerpen

Genicot, Gilles ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Cité

Borry, Pascal; KU Leuven - Katholieke Universiteit Leuven

Sterckx, Sigrid; UGent - Universiteit Gent

Language :

English

Title :

Living tissue and organ donation by minors: Suggestions to improve the regulatory framework in Europe

Publication date :

2016

Journal title :

Medical Law International

ISSN :

0968-5332

eISSN :

2047-9441

Publisher :

SAGE, United Kingdom

Volume :

Pages :

58-93

Peer reviewed :

Peer Reviewed verified by ORBi

Available on ORBi :

since 29 January 2026

Statistics

Number of views

3 (0 by ULiège)

Number of downloads

1 (0 by ULiège)

More statistics

Scopus citations^®

Scopus citations^®
without self-citations

OpenCitations

OpenAlex citations

Bibliography

K. Bonk, 'Minors as Living Organ Donors: Protecting Minors from Martyrdom', Children's Legal Rights Journal 28 (2008), pp. 45-73;
M. Goodwin, 'My Sisters Keeper?: Law, Children and Compelled Donation', Western New England Law Review 29 (2007), pp. 357-404;
B.A. Schenberg, 'Harvesting Organs from Minors and Incompetent Adults to Supply the Nation's Organ Drought', Indiana Health Law Review 3 (2007), pp. 319-359.
See, for the United States, the illustrative case of McFall v. Shimp, 10 Pa & C 3d 90 (July 26, 1978).
See, for instance, C. Cheyette, 'Organ Harvests from the Legally Incompetent: An Argument against Compelled Altruism', Boston College Law Review 41 (2000), pp. 465-515.
See D.L. Confer, 'Hematopoietic Cell Donors', in K.G. Blume, S.J. Forman and F.R. Appelbaum, eds., Thomas' Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation (Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2004), pp. 538-549.
J. Halter, Y. Kodera, A.U. Ispizua, et al., 'Severe Events in Donors After Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Donation', Haematologica 94(1) (2009), pp. 94-101.
See G. Mjøen, O. Øyen, H. Holdaas, et al., 'Morbidity and Mortality in 1022 Consecutive Living Donor Nephrectomies: Benefits of a Living Donor Registry', Transplantation 88(11) (2009), pp. 1273-1279;
D.L. Segev, A.D. Muzaale, B.S. Caffo, et al., 'Perioperative Mortality and Long-term Survival Following Live Kidney Donation', Journal of the American Medical Association 303(10) (2010), pp. 959-966.
G. Mjøen, S. Hallan, A. Hartmann, et al., 'Long-term Risks for Kidney Donors', Kidney International 86 (2014), pp. 162-167;
A.D. Muzaale, A.B. Massie, M.C. Wang, et al., 'Risk of End-stage Renal Disease Following Live Kidney Donation', Journal of the American Medical Association 311(6) (2014), pp. 579-586.
See L. Kousoulas, T. Becker, N. Richter, et al., 'Living Donor Liver Transplantation: Effect of the Type of Liver Graft Donation on Donor Mortality and Morbidity', Transplant International 24(3) (2011), pp. 251-258;
J.B. Otte, 'Donor Complications and Outcomes in Live-liver Transplantation', Transplantation 75(10) (2003), pp. 1625-1626;
Y. Yuan and G. Mitsukazu, 'Biliary Complications in Living Liver Donors', Surgery Today 40(5) (2010), pp. 411-417.
J.K. Robbennolt, V. Weisz and C.M. Lawson, 'Advancing the Rights of Children and Adolescents to be Altruistic: Bone Marrow Donation by Minors', Journal of Law and Health 9 (1995), pp. 213-245.
L. Stultiëns, T. Goffin, P. Borry, et al., 'Minors and Informed Consent: A Comparative Approach', European Journal of Health Law 14 (2007), pp. 21-46.
See N. Broeckx, 'Living Organ Donation and Minors: AMajor Dilemma', European Journal of Health Law 20 (2013), pp. 41-62;
R.W. Griner, 'Live Organ Donations between Siblings and the Best Interest Standard: Time for Stricter Judicial Intervention', Georgia State University Law Review 10(3) (1994), pp. 589-613;
S. Month, 'Preventing Children from Donating May Not Be in Their Best Interests', British Medical Journal 312 (1996), pp. 240-241;
S.L. Nygren, 'Organ Donation by Incompetent Patients: A Hybrid Approach', University of Chicago Legal Forum (2006), pp. 471-502;
L.F. Ross, 'Moral Grounding for the Participation of Children as Organ Donors', Journal of Law Medicine and Ethics 21(2) (1993), pp. 251-257;
B. Shartle, 'Proposed Legislation for Safely Regulating the Increasing Number of Living Organ and Tissue Donations by Minors', Louisiana Law Review 61(2) (2001), pp. 433-471;
D. Steinberg, 'Kidney Transplants from Young Children and the Mental Retarded', Theoretical Medicine 25(4) (2004), pp. 229-234.
A summary of the case (in Spanish) can be found at: https://www.rexurga.es/descarga/J[1].Primera%20Instancia%20Sevilla%20%28984-07%29.pdf (accessed 17 June 2016). We wish to thank Professor Pablo de Lora Deltoro for drawing our attention to this case.
See, M. Navarro-Michel, 'Institutional Organisation and Transplanting the Spanish Model', in A.-M. Farrell, D. Price and M. Quigley, eds., Organ Shortage: Ethics, Law and Pragmatism (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2011), pp. 151-170.
N. Fost, 'Children as Renal Donors', New England Journal of Medicine 296(7) (1977), pp. 363-367;
N.L. Tilney, 'Renal Transplantation Between Identical Twins: A Review', World Journal of Surgery 10(3) (1986), pp. 381-388.
F. Frassoni, M. Lapobin, R. Powles, et al., 'Effect of Centre on Outcome of Bonemarrow Transplantation for Acute Myeloid Leukaemia', The Lancet 355(9213) (2000), pp. 1393-1398.
R.S. Negrin, 'Donor Selection for Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation' (2015). Available at: http://www.uptodate.com/contents/donor-selection-for-hematopoietic-cell-transplantation (accessed 17 June 2016).
S.D. Marks, 'Editorial: Should Children Ever Be Living Kidney Donors?', Pediatric Transplantation 10(7) (2006), pp. 757-759.
M.E. Olbrisch, J.L. Levenson and J.D. Newman, 'Children as Living Organ Donors: Current Views and Practice in the United States', Current Opinion in Organ Transplantation 15(2) (2010), pp. 241-244.
P.F. Hoyer, "'Tie Breaker" for HLA Matching in Pediatric Renal Transplant Recipients?', American Journal of Transplantation 8(10) (2008), pp. 1790-1791.
J. Brierly and V. Larcher, 'Organ Donation from Children: Time for Legal, Ethical and Cultural Change', Acta Paediatrica 100(9) (2011), pp. 1175-1179.
P. Dutkowski, O. De Rougemont, B. Müllhaupt, et al., 'Current and Future Trends in Liver Transplantation in Europe', Gastroenterology 138(3) (2010), pp. 802-809.
J.F. Trotter, M. Wachs, G.T. Everson, et al, 'Adult-to-adult Transplantation of the Right Hepatic Lobe from a Living Donor', New England Journal of Medicine 346(14) (2002), pp. 1074-1082.
F.L. Delmonico and W.E. Harmon, 'The Use of a Minor as a Live Kidney Donor', American Journal of Transplantation 2(4) (2002), pp. 333-336
with the data for the period 2001 until 2015 provided by the US Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network. Available at: http://optn.transplant.hrsa.gov/converge/latestData/ viewDataReports.asp (accessed 17 June 2016).
N. Honda, S. Awata and H. Matsuoka, 'The Case of a Living Liver Donor Who Was Underage: Psychiatric Issues and Evaluation' [in Japanese], Seishin Shinkeigaku Zasshi 111(8) (2009), pp. 930-937;
A.C. Tannuri, N.E. Gibelli, L.R. Ricardi, et al., 'Living Related Donor Liver Transplantation in Children', Transplantation Proceedings 43(1) (2011), pp. 161-164.
N.J.A. Webb and P.M. Fortune, 'Should Children Ever Be Living Kidney Donors?', Pediatric Transplantation 10(7) (2006), pp. 851-855.
United Nations. Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), Articles 3 and 12. Available at: http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx (accessed 17 June 2016).
European Union (EU). Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (2000/2009), Article 24. Available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do? uri=OJ:C:2010:083:0389:0403:en:PDF (accessed 17 June 2016).
Directive 2004/23/EC on Setting Standards of Quality and Safety for the Donation, Procurement, Testing, Processing, Preservation, Storage and Distribution of Human Tissues and Dells (2004), Article 13. Available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/ EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32004L0023 (accessed 17 June 2016);
Directive 2010/53/EU on Standards of Quality and Safety of Human Organs Intended for Transplantation (2010), Article 14. Available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri= CELEX:32010L0053 (accessed 17 June 2016).
Council of Europe. Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (1997), Article 6, para. 1, and Article 20, paras. 1 and 2. Available at: http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/ Html/164.htm (accessed 17 June 2016);
Council of Europe. Additional Protocol concerning Transplantation of Organs and Tissues of Human Origin (2002), Article 14. Available at: http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/186.htm (accessed 17 June 2016).
The Explanatory Report to the Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine clarifies, in para. 129, that such a body might be a court, a professionally qualified body, an ethics committee, and so on. The Explanatory Report is available at: http://conventions.coe.int/ treaty/en/Reports/Html/164.htm (accessed 17 June 2016).
See Explanatory Report to the Additional Protocol concerning Transplantation of Organs and Tissues of Human Origin, Addendum. Available at: http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/ Reports/Html/186.htm (accessed 17 June 2016).
World Health Organization. Guiding Principles on Human Cell, Tissue and Organ Transplantation (1991/2010), Guiding Principle 4. Available at: http://www.who.int/ transplantation/Guiding-PrinciplesTransplantation-WHA63.22en.pdf (accessed 17 June 2016).
World Medical Association. WMA Statement on Human Organ Donation and Transplantation (2006). Available at: http://www.wma.net/en/30publications/10policies/t7 (accessed 17 June 2016).
World Medical Association. WMA Statement on Organ and Tissue Donation (2012). Available at: http://www.wma.net/en/30publications/10policies/o3/ (accessed 17 June 2016).
The Ethics Committee of the Transplantation Society, 'The Consensus Statement of the Amsterdam Forum on the Care of the Live Kidney Donor', Transplantation 78(4) (2004), pp. 491-492.
The Ethics Committee of the Transplantation Society, 'The Ethics Statement of the Vancouver Forum on the Live Lung, Liver, Pancreas, and Intestine Donor', Transplantation 81(10) (2006), pp. 1386-1387.
K. Thys, K. Van Assche, H. Nobile, et al. 'Could Minors Be Living Kidney Donors? A Systematic Review of Guidelines, Position Papers and Reports', Transplant International 26(10) (2013), pp. 949-960.
Strunk v. Strunk, 445S.W. 2d 145 (Ky Ct App 1969).
Hart v. Brown, A. 2d 386 (Conn. Super. Ct. 1972).
T.G. Gutheil and P.S. Appelbaum, 'Substituted Judgment: Best Interests in Disguise', Hastings Center Report 13(3) (1983), pp. 8-11;
L.E. Lebit, 'Compelled Medical Procedures Involving Minors and Incompetents and Misapplication of the Substituted Judgment Doctrine', Journal of Law and Health 7(1) (1992), pp. 107-130;
J.A. Robertson, 'Organ Donation by Incompetents and the Substituted Judgment Doctrine', Columbia Law Review 76(1) (1976), pp. 48-78.
However, note that in Nathan v. Farinelli, No. 74-87 (Mass. Eq. July 3, 1974).
See Howard v. Fulton DeKalb Hosp. Auth., 42 U.S.L.W. 2322 (Ga. Super. Ct. 1973)
Huskey v. Harrison, No. 68666 (Mass. Eq. Aug. 30, 1957) (authorization of kidney donation by a 14-year-old girl to her twin sister);
Foster v. Harrison, No. 68674 (Mass. Eq. Nov. 20, 1957)
C.H. Baron, M. Botsford and G.F. Cole, 'Live Organ and Tissue Transplants', Boston University Law Review 55(2), pp. 159-193;
W.J. Curran, 'A Problem of Consent: Kidney Transplantation in Minors', New York University Law Review 34 (1959), pp. 891-898;
A. Garwood-Gowers, Living Donor Organ Transplantation: Key Legal and Ethical Issues (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1999), p. 122.
Richardson, 284 So. 2d 185 (La Ct App 1973);
Curran v. Bosze, 566 N.E. 2d 1319 (Ill Sup Ct 1990).
Little v. Little, 576 S.W. 2d 499 (Tex Ct App 1979).
Cf. Hurdle v. Currier, 5 Va. Cir.509 (Va Cir 1977) (authorization of bone marrow donation by a 16-year-old girl to her sister);
Matter of John Doe, 481N.Y.S.2d 932 (App Div 1984) (authorization of bone marrow donation by a mentally incompetent man to his brother);
Cayouette v. Mathieu, RJQ 2230 (Sup. Ct., 1987) (authorization of bone marrow donation by a 5-year-old boy to his brother);
In re S.C., Nos. 180564 & 180565 (Ala. Prob. Ct. Jan. 6, 2003) (authorization of skin donation by a 6-year-old girl to her twin sister).
Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs of the American Medical Association, 'Report 3 - I- 93. The Use of Minors as Organ and Tissue Donors' (1993). Available at: http://ama-assn.org/resources/doc/ethics/ceja-3i93.pdf (accessed 17 June 2016).
Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs of the American Medical Association, 'Report 5 - A-05. Transplantation of Organs from Living Donors' (2005). Available at: http://www.ama-assn.org/resources/doc/code-medical-ethics/x-pub/215a.pdf (accessed 17 June 2016);
Live Organ Donor Consensus Group, 'Consensus Statement on the Live Organ Donor', Journal of the American Medical Association 284(22) (2000), pp. 2919-2926.
L.F. Ross, J.R. Thistlethwaite and the Committee on Bioethics, 'Minors as Living Solidorgan Donors', Pediatrics 122(2) (2008), pp. 454-461;
American Academy of Pediatrics, 'Policy Statement - Children as Hematopoietic Stem Cell Donors', Pediatrics 125(2) (2010), pp. 392-404.
Michigan: MI Comp L § 700.5105 (2015);
Alabama: ALA Code § 22-8-9 (2012);
WIS Stat Ann § 146.34 (2012).
See also D.L. Coleman, 'Testing the Boundaries of Family Privacy: The Special Case of Pediatric Sibling Transplants', Cardozo Law Review 35 (2014), pp. 1289-1358.
Note that the Global Database on Donation and Transplantation, established by the World Health Organization and maintained by the Global Observatory on Donation and Transplantation, does not contain a translation of domestic transplant regulations. The database can be accessed at http://www.transplant-observatory.org/Pages/home.aspx (accessed 17 June 2016).
Lopp, 'Regulations Regarding Living Donor Organ Transplantation', and D. Price, Legal and Ethical Aspects of Organ Transplantation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000)
EU member states that have ratified the Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine are Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Greece, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Spain. See http:// conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ChercheSig.asp?NT=164&CM=8&DF=18/02/ 2012&CL=ENG (accessed 17 June 2016).
EU member states that have ratified the Additional Protocol on Transplantation are Bulgaria, Croatia, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Romania, Slovenia, and Spain. See http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ChercheSig.asp?NT=186&CM=8&DF=18/02/2012&CL=ENG (accessed 17 June 2016).
Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine, Article 1 and its Explanatory Report, para. 20.
Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine, Article 36.
In this regard, see for Austrian legal doctrine: G. Aigner, 'Einwilligung Minderjähriger in eine Knochenmarkspende', Recht der Medizin (1998), p. 144;
A. Kletecka, 'Einwilligung, ' in G. Aigner, A. Kletecka, M. Kletecka-Pulker and M. Memmer, eds., Handbuch Medizinrecht für die Praxis (Wien: MANZ'sche, 2004-2009), pp. I/131-I/153.
The list of reservations can be consulted at http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ ListeDeclarations.asp?NT=164&CM=8&DF=27/04/2014&CL=ENG&VL=1 (accessed 17 June 2016).
Explanatory Report to the Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine, para. 130.
Law No. 6 of 9 February 1973 on Transplantation, Hospital Autopsy, Donation of Bodies, Etc. § 1 [Lov 1973-02-09 nr 06 om transplantasjon, sykehusobduksjon og avgivelse av lik m.m.].
The official translation can be found in World Health Organization, 'Legislative Responses to Organ Transplantation', pp. 276-278.
See the information contained in the report on the draft Norwegian transplant law: 'When Death Serves Life. A Proposal for New Legislation on Transplantation, Autopsy and Donation of Bodies' (2011): 178
['Na°r døden tjener livet. Et forslag til nye lover om transplantasjon, obduksjon og avgivelse av lik']. This report (in Norwegian) is available at: http://www.regjeringen.no/pages/36553050/PDFS/NOU201120110021000DDDPDFS.pdf (accessed 17 June 2016).
Law No. 6 of 9 February 1973 on Transplantation, Hospital Autopsy, Donation of Bodies, Etc. § 1.
'When Death Serves Life' (2011): 96.
Law of 8 June 1995 on Transplantation, Etc. [Lag om transplantation m.m. 8 juni 1995]. No official translation exists but a list of legal requirements can be found in NordForsk.
Legislation on Biotechnology in the Nordic Countries (Oslo: NordForsk, 2015), p. 19.
Law of 8 June 1995 on Transplantation, Etc. § 8.
SOSFS 2009:30 National Board Regulations on the Donation and Procurement of Organs, Tissues and Cells, Chapter 6, §§1-2, [SOSFS 2009:30 Socialstyrelsens fö reskrifter om donation och tillvaratagande av organ, vävnader och celler]. Available at: http://www.socialstyrelsen.se/sosfs/2009-30#anchor-5 (accessed 17 June 2016).
Law on the Procurement and Transplantation of Organs, Article 7 [Wet betreffende het wegnemen en transplanteren van organen/Loi sur le prélèvement et la transplantation d'organes]. Available at: http://www.ejustice.just.fgov.be/cgi-loi/change-lg.pl? language=nl&la=N&table-name=wet&cn=1986061337 (Dutch)
http://www.ejustice.just.fgov.be/cgi-loi/change-lg.pl?language=fr&la=F&cn=1986061337&table-name=loi (French) (accessed 17 June 2016).
See Belgian House of Representatives. Draft Law Amending the Law of 13 June 1986, Explanatory Memorandum, 19 April 2012, p. 26
[Belgische Kamer van Volksvertegenwoordigers. Wetsontwerp tot wijziging van de wet van 13 juni 1986, Memorie van toelichting/Chambre de représentants de Belgique. Exposé des motifs]. Available at: http://www.lachambre.be/FLWB/pdf/53/2158/53K2158001.pdf (Dutch and French) (accessed 17 June 2016).
See, for instance, the Belgian Advisory Committee on Bioethics's Opinion No. 50 of 9 May 2011 (2011) ['Advies nr. 50 van 9 mei 2011'/'Avis n- 50 du 9 mai 2011']. Available at: http://www.health.belgium.be/eportal/Healthcare/Consultativebodies/Commitees/Bioethics/ Opinions/index.htm (accessed 17 June 2016);
N. Broeckx, 'Orgaantransplantatie', in T. Vansweevelt and F. Dewallens, eds., Handboek Gezondheidsrecht. Volume II (Antwerpen: Intersentia, 2014), p. 1185.
Law on the Acquisition and Use of Human Biological Material for the Purpose of Medical Applications to Humans or Scientific Research, Article 10 [Wet inzake het verkrijgen en het gebruik van menselijk lichaamsmateriaal met het oog op de geneeskundige toepassing op de mens of het wetenschappelijk onderzoek/Loi relative à l'obtention et à l'utilisation de matériel corporel humain destiné à des applications médicales humaines ou à des fins de recherche scientifique]. Available at: http://www.ejustice.just.fgov.be/cgi-loi/change-lg.pl?language=nl&la=N&table-name=wet&cn=2008121944 (Dutch)
http://www.ejustice.just.fgov.be/cgi-loi/change-lg.pl?language=fr&la=F&cn=2008121944&table- name=loi (French) (accessed 17 June 2016).
Law of 25 November 1982 Regulating the Removal of Substances of Human Origin, Article 2 [Loi réglant le prélèvement de substances d'origine humaine]. Available at: http://www.legilux.public.lu/leg/a/archives/1982/0098/a098.pdf#page=2 (accessed 17 June 2016).
World Health Organization, 'Legislative Responses to Organ Transplantation', p. 256.
Law on Human Tissues and Cells Intended for Human Applications, Article 8 [Loi relative aux tissus et cellules humains destinés à des applications humaines]. Available at: http:// www.legilux.public.lu/rgl/2007/A/2750/A.html (accessed 17 June 2016).
European Communities (Quality and Safety of Human Tissues and Cells) Regulations 2006, Regulation 11, para. 3. Available at: http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/2006/en/si/0158.html (accessed 17 June 2016);
European Union (Quality and Safety of Human Organs Intended for Transplantation) Regulations 2012, Regulation 22, para. 1. Available at: http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/2012/en/si/0325.html (accessed 17 June 2016).
Non-Fatal Offences Against the Person Act 1997, Section 23(1). Available at: http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/1997/en/act/pub/0026/sec0023.html (accessed 17 June 2016).
D. Madden, Medicine, Ethics and the Law (Bloomsbury: Haywards Heath, 2011), pp. 513-514.
Irish Medical Council. Guide to Professional Conduct and Ethics for Registered Medical Practitioners, 2009, para. 43.2. Available at: https://www.medicalcouncil.ie/News-and-Publications/Publications/ Information-for-Doctors/Guide-to-Professional-Conduct-and-Ethics-for-Registered- Medical-Practitioners.pdf (accessed 17 June 2016).
Report on the Public Consultation on Proposals for the General Scheme of the Human Tissue Bill (2009), p. 5.
See Human Tissue (Scotland) Act 2006. Available at: www.opsi.gov.uk/legislation/scotland/acts2006/ asp-20060004-en-3#pt1-pb3 (accessed 17 June 2016);
Human Organ and Tissue Live Transplants (Scotland) Regulations 2006. Available at: www.oqps.gov.uk/legislation/ssi/ ssi2006/ssi-20060390-en-1 (accessed 17 June 2016).
Human Tissue Act 2004, S. 33. Available at: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2004/30/ pdfs/ukpga-20040030-en.pdf (accessed 17 June 2016).
The Human Tissue Authority is an executive public body of the Department of Health, established to ensure that human tissues are used safely and ethically. It regulates the organizations involved in the removal, storage, and use of tissues, approves living organ and bone marrow donation, and issues Codes of Practice laying down standards for the sectors it regulates. Available at: http://www.hta.gov.uk/aboutus.cfm (accessed 17 June 2016).
Human Tissue Act 2004 (Persons who Lack Capacity to Consent and Transplants) Regulations 2006, R. 10(1). Available at: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2006/1659/ pdfs/uksi-20061659-en.pdf (accessed 17 June 2016).
Human Tissue Act 2004 (Persons who Lack Capacity to Consent and Transplants) Regulations 2006, R. 11(6)-(9).
Human Tissue Authority Code of Practice 2 - Donation of solid organs for transplantation, para. 47. Available at: http://www.hta.gov.uk/legislationpoliciesandcodesofpractice/ codesofpractice/code2donationoforgans.cfm (accessed 17 June 2016);
Human Tissue Authority Code of Practice 6 - Donation of allogeneic bone marrow and peripheral blood stem cells for transplantation, para. 33. Available at: http://www.hta.gov.uk/ legislationpoliciesandcodesofpractice/codesofpractice/code6donationofbonemarrow.cfm (accessed 17 June 2016).
Human Tissue Authority Code of Practice 2, Appendix A, para. A10;
Human Tissue Authority Code of Practice 6, para. 33.
Children Act 1989, S. 1(3). Available at: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1989/41/ section/1 (accessed 17 June 2016).
D. Price, Human Tissue in Transplantation and Research: A Model Legal and Ethical Donation Framework (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 31.
Human Tissue Authority Code of Practice 2, paras. 84-85 & Appendix A, para. A10.
Family Law Reform Act 1969, S. 8. Available at: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/ 1969/46/pdfs/ukpga-19690046-en.pdf (accessed 17 June 2016).
Re W (Minor: Medical Treatment), 4 All ER 627 (C.A. 1992);
Re W (A Minor) (Medical Treatment) 3 WLR 758(C.A. 1992).
Gillick v West Norfolk and Wisbech Area Health Authority, AC 112 (1986).
Price, 'Legal and Ethical Aspects', pp. 341-342;
S. Pattinson, Medical Law and Ethics (Andover: Sweet & Maxwell, 2014), p. 449.
Pattinson, 'Medical Law and Ethics', p. 450.
Human Tissue Authority Code of Practice 1 - Consent, para. 140. Available at: http://www.hta.gov.uk/legislationpoliciesandcodesofpractice/codesofpractice/code1consent.cfm? faArea1=customwidgets.content-view-1&cit-id=652 (accessed 17 June 2016);
Human Tissue Authority Code of Practice 6, paras. 71-76.
See J. Herring, Medical Law and Ethics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), p. 453.
See Herring, 'Medical Law and Ethics', p. 454;
E. Jackson, Medical Law. Text, Cases, and Materials (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), pp. 635-636;
G.T. Laurie, S.H.E. Harmon and G. Porter. Mason and McCall Smith's Law and Medical Ethics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), p. 590.
See Human Tissue Authority Code of Practice 6, para. 78.
Re Y (Mental Patient: Bone Marrow Donation), Fam 110 (1997).
K. Van Assche, G. Genicot and S. Sterckx, 'Using Mentally Incompetent Adults as Living Organ Donors: Widely Diverging Regulations in Europe', European Journal of Health Law 19(5) (2012), pp. 441-466;
K. Van Assche, G. Genicot and S. Sterckx, 'Living Organ Procurement from the Mentally Incompetent: The Need for More Appropriate Guidelines', Bioethics 28(3) (2014), pp. 101-109.
For a more in-depth discussion, see L. Capitaine, K. Thys, K. Van Assche, et al. 'Should Minors Be Considered as Potential Living Liver Donors?', Liver Transplantation 19(6) (2013), pp. 649-655.
L.A. Weithorn and S.B. Campbell, 'The Competency of Children and Adolescents to Make Informed Treatment Decisions', Child Development 53(6) (1982), pp. 1589-1598.
L. Steinberg, E. Cauffman, J. Woolard, et al. 'Are Adolescents Less Mature than Adults? Minors' Access to Abortion, the Juvenile Death Penalty, and the Alleged APA "Flip- Flop"', American Psychologist 64(7) (2009), pp. 583-594.
See, in this regard, also Capitaine, et al., 'Should Minors Be Considered as Potential Living Liver Donors?', pp. 651-653;
K. Thys, Should Minors and Young Adults Qualify as Potential Living Kidney Donors? An Ethical Analysis of the Arguments in Favour and Against (Leuven, unpublished PhD manuscript, 2015), p. 83.