On the pathophysiology and treatment of akinetic mutism

Arnts, H.; van Erp, Willemijn; Lavrijsen, J. C. M.; van Gaal, S.; Groenewegen, H. J.; van den Munckhof, P.

doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.02.006

Download

Article (Scientific journals)

On the pathophysiology and treatment of akinetic mutism

Arnts, H.; van Erp, Willemijn; Lavrijsen, J. C. M. et al.

2020 • In Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 112, p. 270-278

Peer Reviewed verified by ORBi

Permalink
https://hdl.handle.net/2268/266552

DOI
10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.02.006

PubMed
32044373

Files (1)Send to Details Statistics Bibliography Similar publications

Files

Full Text

1-s2.0-S0149763419301447-main.pdf

Publisher postprint (563.43 kB)

Download

This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY/4.0/).

All documents in ORBi are protected by a user license.

Send to

RIS BibTex APA Chicago Permalink X Linkedin

Details

Keywords :

Akinetic mutism; Behavior; Disorders of diminished motivation; Frontal-subcortical neurocircuitry; Review

Abstract :

[en] Akinetic mutism (AM) is a rare neurological disorder characterized by the presence of an intact level of consciousness and sensorimotor capacity, but with a simultaneous decrease in goal-directed behavior and emotions. Patients are in a wakeful state of profound apathy, seemingly indifferent to pain, thirst, or hunger. It represents the far end within the spectrum of disorders of diminished motivation. In recent years, more has become known about the functional roles of neurocircuits and neurotransmitters associated with human motivational behavior. More specific, there is an increasing body of behavioral evidence that links specific damage of functional frontal-subcortical organization to the occurrence of distinct neurological deficits. In this review, we combine evidence from lesion studies and neurophysiological evidence in animals, imaging studies in humans, and clinical investigations in patients with AM to form an integrative theory of its pathophysiology. Moreover, the specific pharmacological interventions that have been used to treat AM and their rationales are reviewed, providing a comprehensive overview for use in clinical practice. © 2020 The Authors

Disciplines :

Neurology

Author, co-author :

Arnts, H.; Department of Neurosurgery, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, Netherlands

van Erp, Willemijn ; Université de Liège - ULiège > GIGA

Lavrijsen, J. C. M.; Department of Primary and Community Care, Center for Family Medicine, Geriatric Care and Public Health, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands

van Gaal, S.; Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands

Groenewegen, H. J.; Department of Anatomy and Neurosciences, Neuroscience Campus Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, Netherlands

van den Munckhof, P.; Department of Neurosurgery, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, Netherlands

Language :

English

Title :

On the pathophysiology and treatment of akinetic mutism

Publication date :

2020

Journal title :

Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews

ISSN :

0149-7634

eISSN :

1873-7528

Publisher :

Elsevier, United Kingdom

Volume :

112

Pages :

270-278

Peer reviewed :

Peer Reviewed verified by ORBi

Available on ORBi :

since 31 December 2021

Statistics

Number of views

53 (1 by ULiège)

Number of downloads

65 (1 by ULiège)

More statistics

Scopus citations^®

Scopus citations^®
without self-citations

OpenCitations

OpenAlex citations

Bibliography

Alexander, M.P., Chronic akinetic mutism after mesencephalic-diencephalic infarction: remediated with dopaminergic medications. Neurorehabil. Neural Repair 15 (2001), 151–156.
Anderson, B., Relief of akinetic mutism from obstructive hydrocephalus using bromocriptine and ephedrine. Case report. J. Neurosurg. 76 (1992), 152–155.
Arnsten, A.F., Catecholamine modulation of prefrontal cortical cognitive function. Trends Cogn. Sci. (Regul. Ed.) 2 (1998), 436–447.
Aspen Workgroup, Recommendations for use of uniform nomenclature pertinent to patients with severe alterations in consciousness. American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 76 (1995), 205–209.
Ballantine, H.T. Jr, Cassidy, W.L., Flanagan, N.B., Marino, R. Jr, Stereotaxic anterior cingulotomy for neuropsychiatric illness and intractable pain. J. Neurosurg. 26 (1967), 488–495.
Beaulieu, J.M., Gainetdinov, R.R., The physiology, signaling, and pharmacology of dopamine receptors. Pharmacol. Rev. 63 (2011), 182–217.
Berridge, C.W., Devilbiss, D.M., Andrzejewski, M.E., Arnsten, A.F., Kelley, A.E., Schmeichel, B., Hamilton, C., Spencer, R.C., Methylphenidate preferentially increases catecholamine neurotransmission within the prefrontal cortex at low doses that enhance cognitive function. Biol. Psychiatry 60 (2006), 1111–1120.
Bhatia, K.P., Marsden, C.D., The behavioural and motor consequences of focal lesions of the basal ganglia in man. Brain 117:Pt 4 (1994), 859–876.
Bogousslavsky, J., Regli, F., Delaloye, B., Delaloye-Bischof, A., Assal, G., Uske, A., Loss of psychic self-activation with bithalamic infarction. Neurobehavioural, CT, MRI and SPECT correlates. Acta Neurol. Scand. 83 (1991), 309–316.
Bomalaski, M.N., Claflin, E.S., Townsend, W., Peterson, M.D., Zolpidem for the treatment of neurologic disorders: a systematic review. JAMA Neurol. 74 (2017), 1130–1139.
Brefel-Courbon, C., Payoux, P., Ory, F., Sommet, A., Slaoui, T., Raboyeau, G., Lemesle, B., Puel, M., Montastruc, J.L., Demonet, J.F., Cardebat, D., Clinical and imaging evidence of zolpidem effect in hypoxic encephalopathy. Ann. Neurol. 62 (2007), 102–105.
Brown, R.E., McKenna, J.T., Turning a negative into a positive: ascending GABAergic control of cortical activation and arousal. Front. Neurol., 6, 2015, 135.
Bymaster, F.P., Katner, J.S., Nelson, D.L., Hemrick-Luecke, S.K., Threlkeld, P.G., Heiligenstein, J.H., Morin, S.M., Gehlert, D.R., Perry, K.W., Atomoxetine increases extracellular levels of norepinephrine and dopamine in prefrontal cortex of rat: a potential mechanism for efficacy in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 27 (2002), 699–711.
Cairns, H., Oldfield, R.C., Pennybacker, J.B., Whitteridge, D., Akinetic mutism with an epidermoid cyst of the 3rd ventricle. Brain 64 (1941), 273–290.
Carota, A., Pop, A.I., Dueron, N., Calabrese, P., Akinetic mutism and utilization behavior after bilateral thalamo-polar artery stroke. Acta Neurol. Belg. 114 (2014), 153–155.
Carrera, E., Bogousslavsky, J., The thalamus and behavior: effects of anatomically distinct strokes. Neurology 66 (2006), 1817–1823.
Castaigne, P., Lhermitte, F., Buge, A., Escourolle, R., Hauw, J.J., Lyon-Caen, O., Paramedian thalamic and midbrain infarct: clinical and neuropathological study. Ann. Neurol. 10 (1981), 127–148.
Chen, L., Savio Chan, C., Yung, W.H., Electrophysiological and behavioral effects of zolpidem in rat globus pallidus. Exp. Neurol. 186 (2004), 212–220.
Chew, E., Zafonte, R.D., Pharmacological management of neurobehavioral disorders following traumatic brain injury--a state-of-the-art review. J. Rehabil. Res. Dev. 46 (2009), 851–879.
Choi, E.Y., Ding, S.L., Haber, S.N., Combinatorial inputs to the ventral striatum from the temporal cortex, frontal cortex, and amygdala: implications for segmenting the striatum. Eneuro, 2017, 4.
Choudhari, K.A., Subarachnoid haemorrhage and akinetic mutism. Br. J. Neurosurg. 18 (2004), 253–258.
Clauss, R.P., Guldenpfennig, W.M., Nel, H.W., Sathekge, M.M., Venkannagari, R.R., Extraordinary arousal from semi-comatose state on zolpidem. A case report. S. Afr. Med. J. 90 (2000), 68–72.
Combarros, O., Infante, J., Berciano, J., Akinetic mutism from frontal lobe damage responding to levodopa. J. Neurol. 247 (2000), 568–569.
Cravioto, H., Silberman, J., Feigin, I., A clinical and pathologic study of akinetic mutism. Neurology 10 (1960), 10–21.
Crismon, M.L., Childs, A., Wilcox, R.E., Barrow, N., The effect of bromocriptine on speech dysfunction in patients with diffuse brain injury (akinetic mutism). Clin. Neuropharmacol. 11 (1988), 462–466.
Crone, J.S., Lutkenhoff, E.S., Bio, B.J., Laureys, S., Monti, M.M., Testing proposed neuronal models of effective connectivity within the cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop during loss of consciousness. Cereb. Cortex 27 (2017), 2727–2738.
Daly, D.D., Love, J.G., Akinetic mutism. Neurology 8 (1958), 238–242.
Damasio, A.R., Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain. 1994, Avon Books, New York, 312.
Damasio, A.R., Anderson, S.W., The frontal lobes. Heilman, K.M., V.E, (eds.) Clinical Neuropsychology, 3rd ed., 1993, Oxford University Press, New York, 409–460.
Darby, R.R., Joutsa, J., Burke, M.J., Fox, M.D., Lesion network localization of free will. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 115 (2018), 10792–10797.
De Bie, R.M., Schuurman, P.R., Esselink, R.A., Bosch, D.A., Speelman, J.D., Bilateral pallidotomy in Parkinson's disease: a retrospective study. Mov. Disord. 17 (2002), 533–538.
Deborah, G., Ong, E., Nighoghossian, N., Akinetic mutism reversibility after L-dopa therapy in unilateral left anterior cerebral artery infarction. Neurocase 23 (2017), 171–172.
Demirtas-Tatlidede, A., Bahar, S.Z., Gurvit, H., Akinetic mutism without a structural prefrontal lesion. Cogn. Behav. Neurol. 26 (2013), 59–62.
Dennis, T., Dubois, A., Benavides, J., Scatton, B., Distribution of central omega 1 (benzodiazepine1) and omega 2 (benzodiazepine2) receptor subtypes in the monkey and human brain. An autoradiographic study with [3H]flunitrazepam and the omega 1 selective ligand [3H]zolpidem. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 247 (1988), 309–322.
Der-Avakian, A., Markou, A., The neurobiology of anhedonia and other reward-related deficits. Trends Neurosci. 35 (2012), 68–77.
Devinsky, O., Morrell, M.J., Vogt, B.A., Contributions of anterior cingulate cortex to behaviour. Brain 118:Pt 1 (1995), 279–306.
Diaz-Arrastia, R., Kochanek, P.M., Bergold, P., Kenney, K., Marx, C.E., Grimes, C.J., Loh, L.T., Adam, L.T., Oskvig, D., Curley, K.C., Salzer, W., Pharmacotherapy of traumatic brain injury: state of the science and the road forward: report of the Department of Defense Neurotrauma Pharmacology Workgroup. J. Neurotrauma 31 (2014), 135–158.
Duffy, J., Apathy in Neurologic Disorders. Current Psychiatry Reports 2., 2000, 434–439.
Easton, N., Marshall, F., Fone, K., Marsden, C., Atomoxetine produces changes in cortico-basal thalamic loop circuits: assessed by phMRI BOLD contrast. Neuropharmacology 52 (2007), 812–826.
Engelborghs, S., Marien, P., Pickut, B.A., Verstraeten, S., De Deyn, P.P., Loss of psychic self-activation after paramedian bithalamic infarction. Stroke 31 (2000), 1762–1765.
Fisher, C.M., Honored guest presentation: abulia minor vs. Agitated behavior. Clin. Neurosurg. 31 (1983), 9–31.
Fisher, C.M., ’Catatonia’ due to disulfiram toxicity. Arch. Neurol. 46 (1989), 798–804.
Freemon, F.R., Akinetic mutism and bilateral anterior cerebral artery occlusion. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 34 (1971), 693–698.
Galvan, A., Villalba, R.M., West, S.M., Maidment, N.T., Ackerson, L.C., Smith, Y., Wichmann, T., GABAergic modulation of the activity of globus pallidus neurons in primates: in vivo analysis of the functions of GABA receptors and GABA transporters. J. Neurophysiol. 94 (2005), 990–1000.
Gamo, N.J., Wang, M., Arnsten, A.F., Methylphenidate and atomoxetine enhance prefrontal function through alpha2-adrenergic and dopamine D1 receptors. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 49 (2010), 1011–1023.
Giacino, J.T., Disorders of consciousness: differential diagnosis and neuropathologic features. Semin. Neurol. 17 (1997), 105–111.
Giacino, J.T., Fins, J.J., Laureys, S., Schiff, N.D., Disorders of consciousness after acquired brain injury: the state of the science. Nat. Rev. Neurol. 10 (2014), 99–114.
Gosseries, O., Charland-Verville, V., Thonnard, M., Bodart, O., Laureys, S., Demertzi, A., Amantadine, apomorphine and zolpidem in the treatment of disorders of consciousness. Curr. Pharm. Des. 20 (2014), 4167–4184.
Groenewegen, H.J., Voorn, P., Scheel-Krüger, J., Limbic-basal ganglia circuits: parallel and integrative aspects. Soghomonian, J.J., (eds.) The Basal Ganglia. Novel Perspectives on Motor and Cognitive Functions, 2016, Springer, 11–45.
Groenewegen, H.J., Wouterlood, F.G., Uylings, H.B.M., Organization of Prefrontal-Striatal Connections, Handbook of Basal Ganglia Structure and Function. 2017, Elsevier, 433–449.
Haaxma, R., Robbins, T.W., James, M., Brouwer, W.H., Colebatch, J.G., Marsden, C.D., Neurobehavioural changes in a patient with bilateral lesions of the globus pallidus. Behav. Neurol. 6 (1993), 229–237.
Haber, S.N., The place of dopamine in the cortico-basal ganglia circuit. Neuroscience 282 (2014), 248–257.
Haber, S.N., Corticostriatal circuitry. Dialogues Clin. Neurosci. 18 (2016), 7–21.
Haber, S.N., Calzavara, R., The cortico-basal ganglia integrative network: the role of the thalamus. Brain Res. Bull. 78 (2009), 69–74.
Haber, S.N., McFarland, N.R., The concept of the ventral striatum in nonhuman primates. Ann Ny Acad Sci 877 (1999), 33–48.
Haber, S.N., Lynd, E., Klein, C., Groenewegen, H.J., Topographic organization of the ventral striatal efferent projections in the rhesus-monkey - an anterograde tracing study. J. Comp. Neurol. 293 (1990), 282–298.
Habib, M., Athymhormia and disorders of motivation in Basal Ganglia disease. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 16 (2004), 509–524.
Habib, M., Poncet, M., [Loss of vitality, of interest and of the affect (athymhormia syndrome) in lacunar lesions of the corpus striatum]. Rev Neurol (Paris) 144 (1988), 571–577.
Hall, H., Sedvall, G., Magnusson, O., Kopp, J., Halldin, C., Farde, L., Distribution of D1- and D2-dopamine receptors, and dopamine and its metabolites in the human brain. Neuropsychopharmacology 11 (1994), 245–256.
Hall, S.D., Yamawaki, N., Fisher, A.E., Clauss, R.P., Woodhall, G.L., Stanford, I.M., GABA(A) alpha-1 subunit mediated desynchronization of elevated low frequency oscillations alleviates specific dysfunction in stroke--a case report. Clin. Neurophysiol. 121 (2010), 549–555.
Hawke, W.A., Donohue, W.L., Bilateral symmetrical necrosis of the corpora striata; report of a fatal case and reference to a possible syndrome of the corpora striata. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 113 (1951), 20–39.
Heilbronner, S.R., Rodriguez-Romaguera, J., Quirk, G.J., Groenewegen, H.J., Haber, S.N., Circuit-based corticostriatal homologies between rat and primate. Biol Psychiat 80 (2016), 509–521.
Holroyd, C.B., Yeung, N., An integrative theory of anterior cingulate cortex function: option selection in hierarchical reinforcement learning. Neural Basis of Motivational and Cognitive Control, 2011, 333–349.
Holroyd, C.B., Yeung, N., Motivation of extended behaviors by anterior cingulate cortex. Trends Cogn. Sci. (Regul. Ed.) 16 (2012), 122–128.
Horvitz, J.C., Dopamine gating of glutamatergic sensorimotor and incentive motivational input signals to the striatum. Behav. Brain Res. 137 (2002), 65–74.
Jahanshahi, M., Obeso, I., Rothwell, J.C., Obeso, J.A., A fronto-striato-subthalamic-pallidal network for goal-directed and habitual inhibition. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 16 (2015), 719–732.
Jang, S.H., Chang, C.H., Jung, Y.J., Lee, H.D., Recovery of akinetic mutism and injured prefronto-caudate tract following shunt operation for hydrocephalus and rehabilitation: a case report. Medicine (Baltimore), 96, 2017, e9117.
Jeon, D.G., Kim, Y.W., Kim, N.Y., Park, J.H., Serotonin syndrome following combined administration of dopaminergic and noradrenergic agents in a patient with akinetic mutism after frontal intracerebral hemorrhage: a case report. Clin. Neuropharmacol. 40 (2017), 180–182.
Jurgens, U., The neural control of vocalization in mammals: a review. J. Voice 23 (2009), 1–10.
Kalivas, P.W., Barnes, C.D., Limbic Motor Circuits and Neuropsychiatry. 2019, CRC Press, Boca Raton.
Keeler, J.F., Pretsell, D.O., Robbins, T.W., Functional implications of dopamine D1 vs. D2 receptors: a’ prepare and select’ model of the striatal direct vs. Indirect pathways. Neuroscience 282 (2014), 156–175.
Kemper, T.L., Romanul, F.C., State resembling akinetic mutism in basilar artery occlusion. Neurology 17 (1967), 74–80.
Kim, H.A., You, S., Akinetic mutism in a patient with acute infarcts in the bilateral substantia nigra. J. Neurol. Sci. 373 (2017), 46–47.
Kim, Y.W., Shin, J.C., An, Y.S., Treatment of chronic akinetic mutism with atomoxetine: subtraction analysis of brain f-18 fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomographic images before and after medication: a case report. Clin. Neuropharmacol. 33 (2010), 209–211.
Kondziella, D., Sonnewald, U., Tullberg, M., Wikkelso, C., Brain metabolism in adult chronic hydrocephalus. J. Neurochem. 106 (2008), 1515–1524.
Kouneiher, F., Charron, S., Koechlin, E., Motivation and cognitive control in the human prefrontal cortex. Nat. Neurosci. 12 (2009), 939–945.
Laplane, D., Levasseur, M., Pillon, B., Dubois, B., Baulac, M., Mazoyer, B., Tran Dinh, S., Sette, G., Danze, F., Baron, J.C., Obsessive-compulsive and other behavioural changes with bilateral basal ganglia lesions. A neuropsychological, magnetic resonance imaging and positron tomography study. Brain 112:Pt 3 (1989), 699–725.
Leblois, A., Boraud, T., Meissner, W., Bergman, H., Hansel, D., Competition between feedback loops underlies normal and pathological dynamics in the basal ganglia. J. Neurosci. 26 (2006), 3567–3583.
Levy, R., Dubois, B., Apathy and the functional anatomy of the prefrontal cortex-basal ganglia circuits. Cereb. Cortex 16 (2006), 916–928.
Livingston, K.E., Cingulate cortex isolation for the treatment of psychoses and psychoneuroses. Res. Publ. Assoc. Res. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 31 (1953), 374–378 passim.
Ljungberg, T., Ungerstedt, U., Reinstatement of eating by dopamine agonists in aphagic dopamine denervated rats. Physiol. Behav. 16 (1976), 277–283.
Lo, C.P., Chen, S.Y., Lee, K.W., Chen, W.L., Chen, C.Y., Hsueh, C.J., Huang, G.S., Brain injury after acute carbon monoxide poisoning: early and late complications. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 189 (2007), W205–211.
Mackintosh, T.F., Akinetic mutism following coal-gas poisoning with subsequent recovery. Postgrad. Med. J. 41 (1965), 567–573.
Marshall, J.F., Gotthelf, T., Sensory inattention in rats with 6-hydroxydopamine-induced degeneration of ascending dopaminergic neurons: apomorphine-induced reversal of deficits. Exp. Neurol. 65 (1979), 398–411.
Marshall, J.F., Ungerstedt, U., Apomorphine-induced restoration of drinking to thirst challenges in 6-hydroxydopamine-treated rats. Physiol. Behav. 17 (1976), 817–822.
Meador, K.J., Watson, R.T., Bowers, D., Heilman, K.M., Hypometria with hemispatial and limb motor neglect. Brain 109:Pt 2 (1986), 293–305.
Medford, N., Critchley, H.D., Conjoint activity of anterior insular and anterior cingulate cortex: awareness and response. Brain Struct. Funct. 214 (2010), 535–549.
Mendez, M.F., Adams, N.L., Lewandowski, K.S., Neurobehavioral changes associated with caudate lesions. Neurology 39 (1989), 349–354.
Messert, B., Henke, T.K., Langheim, W., Syndrome of akinetic mutism associated with obstructive hydrocephalus. Neurology 16 (1966), 635–649.
Meyer, J.S., Hunter, J., Behaviour deficits following diencephalic lesions. Neurology 2 (1952), 112–130.
Meyers, R., The modification of alternating tremors, rigidity and festination by surgery of the basal ganglia. Res. Pub. Ass. nerv. ment. Dis. 21 (1942), 602–665.
Meyers, R., Dandy's striatal theory of "the center of consciousness"; surgical evidence and logical analysis indicating its improbability. AMA Arch. Neurol. Psychiatry 65 (1951), 659–671.
Miller, B.L., Cummings, J.L., The Human Frontal Lobes: Functions and Disorders. 3th ed., 2018, The Guilford Press, New York.
Monchi, O., Petrides, M., Strafella, A.P., Worsley, K.J., Doyon, J., Functional role of the basal ganglia in the planning and execution of actions. Ann. Neurol. 59 (2006), 257–264.
Nagaratnam, N., Nagaratnam, K., Ng, K., Diu, P., Akinetic mutism following stroke. J. Clin. Neurosci. 11 (2004), 25–30.
Nemeth, G., Hegedus, K., Molnar, L., Akinetic mutism and locked-in syndrome: the functional-anatomical basis for their differentiation. Funct. Neurol. 1 (1986), 128–139.
Nemeth, G., Hegedus, K., Molnar, L., Akinetic mutism associated with bicingular lesions: clinicopathological and functional anatomical correlates. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Neurol. Sci. 237 (1988), 218–222.
Pinault, D., The thalamic reticular nucleus: structure, function and concept. Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev. 46 (2004), 1–31.
Piron, C., Kase, D., Topalidou, M., Goillandeau, M., Orignac, H., N'Guyen, T.H., Rougier, N., Boraud, T., The globus pallidus pars interna in goal-oriented and routine behaviors: resolving a long-standing paradox. Mov. Disord. 31 (2016), 1146–1154.
Powell, J.H., al-Adawi, S., Morgan, J., Greenwood, R.J., Motivational deficits after brain injury: effects of bromocriptine in 11 patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 60 (1996), 416–421.
Rebai, R.M., Houissa, S., Mustapha, M.E., Azzouni, H., Assaggaf, S., Akinetic mutism and parkinsonism after multiple shunt failure: case report and literature review. J. Neurol. Surg. A. Cent. Eur. Neurosurg. 73 (2012), 341–346.
Ross, E.D., Stewart, R.M., Akinetic mutism from hypothalamic damage: successful treatment with dopamine agonists. Neurology 31 (1981), 1435–1439.
Saga, Y., Hoshi, E., Tremblay, L., Roles of multiple globus pallidus territories of monkeys and humans in motivation, cognition and action: an anatomical, physiological and pathophysiological review. Front. Neuroanat., 11, 2017, 30.
Salamone, J.D., Correa, M., The mysterious motivational functions of mesolimbic dopamine. Neuron 76 (2012), 470–485.
Schiff, N.D., Recovery of consciousness after brain injury: a mesocircuit hypothesis. Trends Neurosci. 33 (2010), 1–9.
Segarra, J.M., Cerebral vascular disease and behavior. I. The syndrome of the mesencephalic artery (basilar artery bifurcation). Arch. Neurol. 22 (1970), 408–418.
Shenhav, A., Botvinick, M.M., Cohen, J.D., The expected value of control: an integrative theory of anterior cingulate cortex function. Neuron 79 (2013), 217–240.
Shetty, A.C., Morris, J., O'Mahony, P., Akinetic mutism--not coma. Age Ageing 38 (2009), 350–351.
Skultety, F.M., Clinical and experimental aspects of akinetic mutism. Report of a case. Arch Neurol 19 (1968), 1–14.
Spiegel, E.A., Wycis, H.T., Freed, H., Orchinik, C., Thalamotomy and hypothalamotomy for the treatment of psychoses. Res. Publ. Assoc. Res. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 31 (1953), 379–391 passim.
Strub, R.L., Frontal lobe syndrome in a patient with bilateral globus pallidus lesions. Arch. Neurol. 46 (1989), 1024–1027.
Taber, M.T., Das, S., Fibiger, H.C., Cortical regulation of subcortical dopamine release: mediation via the ventral tegmental area. J. Neurochem. 65 (1995), 1407–1410.
Tashiro, Y., Drake, J.M., Chakrabortty, S., Hattori, T., Functional injury of cholinergic, GABAergic and dopaminergic systems in the basal ganglia of adult rat with kaolin-induced hydrocephalus. Brain Res. 770 (1997), 45–52.
Tekin, S., Cummings, J.L., Frontal-subcortical neuronal circuits and clinical neuropsychiatry: an update. J. Psychosom. Res. 53 (2002), 647–654.
Tengvar, C., Johansson, B., Sorensen, J., Frontal lobe and cingulate cortical metabolic dysfunction in acquired akinetic mutism: a PET study of the interval form of carbon monoxide poisoning. Brain Inj. 18 (2004), 615–625.
Tibbetts, P., The anterior cingulate cortex, akinetic mutism, and human volition. Brain Mind 2 (2001), 323–341.
Ungerstedt, U., Is interruption of the nigro-striatal dopamine system producing the "lateral hypothalamus syndrome"?. Acta Physiol. Scand. 80 (1970), 35A–36A.
Ungerstedt, U., Adipsia and aphagia after 6-hydroxydopamine induced degeneration of the nigro-striatal dopamine system. Acta Physiol. Scand. Suppl. 367 (1971), 95–122.
Ure, J., Faccio, E., Videla, H., Caccuri, R., Giudice, F., Ollari, J., Diez, M., Akinetic mutism: a report of three cases. Acta Neurol. Scand. 98 (1998), 439–444.
Van der Werf, Y.D., Witter, M.P., Groenewegen, H.J., The intralaminar and midline nuclei of the thalamus. Anatomical and functional evidence for participation in processes of arousal and awareness. Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev. 39 (2002), 107–140.
van Domburg, P.H., ten Donkelaar, H.J., Notermans, S.L., Akinetic mutism with bithalamic infarction. Neurophysiological correlates. J. Neurol. Sci. 139 (1996), 58–65.
Volkow, N.D., Wang, G., Fowler, J.S., Logan, J., Gerasimov, M., Maynard, L., Ding, Y., Gatley, S.J., Gifford, A., Franceschi, D., Therapeutic doses of oral methylphenidate significantly increase extracellular dopamine in the human brain. J. Neurosci., 21, 2001, RC121.
Watanabe, M.D., Martin, E.M., DeLeon, O.A., Gaviria, M., Pavel, D.G., Trepashko, D.W., Successful methylphenidate treatment of apathy after subcortical infarcts. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 7 (1995), 502–504.
Williams, S.T., Conte, M.M., Goldfine, A.M., Noirhomme, Q., Gosseries, O., Thonnard, M., Beattie, B., Hersh, J., Katz, D.I., Victor, J.D., Laureys, S., Schiff, N.D., Common resting brain dynamics indicate a possible mechanism underlying zolpidem response in severe brain injury. Elife, 2, 2013, e01157.
Xue, Y., Han, X.H., Chen, L., Effects of pharmacological block of GABA(A) receptors on pallidal neurons in normal and parkinsonian state. Front. Cell. Neurosci., 4, 2010, 2.
Yang, C.P., Huang, W.S., Shih, H.T., Lin, C.Y., Lu, M.K., Kao, C.H., Hsieh, T.C., Huang, K.J., Lee, Y.H., Tsai, C.H., Diminution of basal ganglia dopaminergic function may play an important role in the generation of akinetic mutism in a patient with anterior cerebral arterial infarct. Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg. 109 (2007), 602–606.
Yarns, B.C., Quinn, D.K., Telephone effect in akinetic mutism from traumatic brain injury. Psychosomatics 54 (2013), 609–610.