directed energy deposition; microscopy and microanalysis techniques; Ti6Al4V alloy; phase transformation mechanisms; thermal modeling; experimental validation
Abstract :
[en] The microstructure directly influences the subsequent mechanical properties of materials. In the manufactured parts, the elaboration processes set the microstructure features such as phase types or the characteristics of defects and grains. In this light, this article aims to understand the evolution of the microstructure during the directed energy deposition (DED) manufacturing process of Ti6Al4V alloy. It sets out a new concept of time-phase transformation-block (TTB). This innovative segmentation of the temperature history in different blocks allows us to correlate the thermal histories computed by a 3D finite element (FE) thermal model and the final microstructure of a multilayered Ti6Al4V alloy obtained from the DED process. As a first step, a review of the state of the art on mechanisms that trigger solid-phase transformations of Ti6Al4V alloy is carried out. This shows the inadequacy of the current kinetic models to predict microstructure evolution during DED as multiple values are reported for transformation start temperatures. Secondly, a 3D finite element (FE) thermal simulation is developed and its results are validated against a Ti6Al4V part representative of repair technique using a DED process. The building strategy promotes the heat accumulation and the part exhibits heterogeneity of hardness and of the nature and the number of phases. Within the generated thermal field history, three points of interest (POI) representative of different microstructures are selected. An in-depth analysis of the thermal curves enables distinguishing solid-phase transformations according to their diffusive or displacive mechanisms. Coupled with the state of the art, this analysis highlights both the variable character of the critical points of transformations, and the different phase transformation mechanisms activated depending on the temperature value and on the heating or cooling rate. The validation of this approach is achieved by means of a thorough qualitative description of the evolution of the microstructure at each of the POI during DED process. The new TTB concept is thus shown to provide a flowchart basis to predict the final microstructure based on FE temperature fields.
Research center :
CAREM - Cellule d'Appui à la Recherche et à l'Enseignement en Microscopie - ULiège
Disciplines :
Materials science & engineering
Author, co-author :
Tchuindjang, Jérôme Tchoufack ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département d'aérospatiale et mécanique > Metallic materials for additive manufacturing
Paydas, Hakan ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département d'aérospatiale et mécanique > Metallic materials for additive manufacturing
Tran, Hoang Son ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département ArGEnCo > Département Argenco : Secteur MS2F
Carrus, Raoul; Sirris Research Centre
Duchene, Laurent ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département ArGEnCo > Analyse multi-échelles des matériaux et struct. du gén. civ.
Mertens, Anne ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département d'aérospatiale et mécanique > Metallic materials for additive manufacturing
Habraken, Anne ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département ArGEnCo > Département ArGEnCo
Language :
English
Title :
A New Concept for Modeling Phase Transformations in Ti6Al4V Alloy Manufactured by Directed Energy Deposition
Liu, S.; Shin, Y.C. Additive manufacturing of Ti6Al4V alloy: A review. Mater. Des. 2019, 164, 107552.
Yang, J.; Yang, H.; Yu, H.; Wang, Z.; Wang, H.; Zeng, X. A novel approach to in-situ fabricate Ti-6Al-4V alloy with graded microstructure and property by selective laser melting. Mater. Lett. 2018, 215, 246–249.
Barriobero-Vila, P.; Gussone, J.; Haubrich, J.; Sandlöbes, S.; Da Silva, J.; Cloetens, P.; Schell, N.; Requena, G. Inducing stable α + β microstructures during selective laser melting of Ti-6Al-4V using intensified intrinsic heat treatments. Materials 2017, 10, 268.
Lindgren, L.-E.; Lundbäck, A.; Fisk, M.; Pederson, R.; Andersson, J. Simulation of additive manufacturing using coupled constitutive and microstructure models. Spec. Issue Model. Simul. Addit. Manuf. 2016, 12, 144–158.
Paydas, H.; Mertens, A.; Carrus, R.; Lecomte-Beckers, J.; Tchoufang Tchuindjang, J. Laser cladding as repair technology for Ti-6Al-4V alloy: Influence of building strategy on microstructure and hardness. Mater. Des. 2015, 85, 497–510.
Thijs, L.; Verhaeghe, F.; Craeghs, T.; Humbeeck, J.V.; Kruth, J.-P. A study of the microstructural evolution during selective laser melting of Ti-6Al-4V. Acta Mater. 2010, 58, 3303–3312.
Bermingham, M.J.; Kent, D.; Zhan, H.; StJohn, D.H.; Dargusch, M.S. Controlling the microstructure and properties of wire arc additive manufactured Ti-6Al-4V with trace boron additions. Acta Mater. 2015, 91, 289–303.
Qian, L.; Mei, J.; Liang, J.; Wu, X. Influence of position and laser power on thermal history and microstructure of direct laser fabricated Ti-6Al-4V samples. Mater. Sci. Technol. 2005, 21, 597–605.
Gorsse, S.; Hutchinson, C.; Gouné, M.; Banerjee, R. Additive manufacturing of metals: A brief review of the characteristic microstructures and properties of steels, Ti-6Al-4V and high-entropy alloys. Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 2017, 18, 584–610.
Tan, X.; Kok, Y.; Tan, Y.J.; Vastola, G.; Pei, Q.X.; Zhang, G.; Zhang, Y.-W.; Tor, S.B.; Leong, K.F.; Chua, C.K. An experimental and simulation study on build thickness dependent microstructure for electron beam melted Ti-6Al-4V. J. Alloys Compd. 2015, 646, 303–309.
Sridharan, N.; Chaudhary, A.; Nandwana, P.; Babu, S.S. Texture Evolution During Laser Direct Metal Deposition of Ti-6Al-4V. JOM 2016, 68, 772–777.
Neikter, M.; Åkerfeldt, P.; Pederson, R.; Antti, M.-L.; Sandell, V. Microstructural characterization and comparison of Ti-6Al-4V manufactured with different additive manufacturing processes. Mater. Charact. 2018, 143, 68–75.
Wolff, S.J.; Lin, S.; Faierson, E.J.; Liu, W.K.; Wagner, G.J.; Cao, J. A framework to link localized cooling and properties of directed energy deposition (DED)-processed Ti-6Al-4V. Acta Mater. 2017, 132, 106–117.
Ahn, J.; He, E.; Chen, L.; Wimpory, R.C.; Dear, J.P.; Davies, C.M. Prediction and measurement of residual stresses and distortions in fibre laser welded Ti-6Al-4V considering phase transformation. Mater. Des. 2017, 115, 441–457.
Xu, W.; Lui, E.W.; Pateras, A.; Qian, M.; Brandt, M. In situ tailoring microstructure in additively manufactured Ti-6Al-4V for superior mechanical performance. Acta Mater. 2017, 125, 390–400.
Lu, S.L.; Qian, M.; Tang, H.P.; Yan, M.; Wang, J.; StJohn, D.H. Massive transformation in Ti-6Al-4V additively manufactured by selective electron beam melting. Acta Mater. 2016, 104, 303–311.
Galarraga, H.; Warren, R.J.; Lados, D.A.; Dehoff, R.R.; Kirka, M.M.; Nandwana, P. Effects of heat treatments on microstructure and properties of Ti-6Al-4V ELI alloy fabricated by electron beam melting (EBM). Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2017, 685, 417–428.
Dietrich, K.; Diller, J.; Dubiez-Le Goff, S.; Bauer, D.; Forêt, P.; Witt, G. The influence of oxygen on the chemical composition and mechanical properties of Ti-6Al-4V during laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF). Addit. Manuf. 2020, 32, 100980.
Donoghue, J.; Antonysamy, A.A.; Martina, F.; Colegrove, P.A.; Williams, S.W.; Prangnell, P.B. The effectiveness of combining rolling deformation with Wire–Arc Additive Manufacture on β-grain refinement and texture modification in Ti-6Al-4V. Mater. Charact. 2016, 114, 103–114.
Yang, J.; Yu, H.; Yin, J.; Gao, M.; Wang, Z.; Zeng, X. Formation and control of martensite in Ti-6Al-4V alloy produced by selective laser melting. Mater. Des. 2016, 108, 308–318.
Xu, W.; Brandt, M.; Sun, S.; Elambasseril, J.; Liu, Q.; Latham, K.; Xia, K.; Qian, M. Additive manufacturing of strong and ductile Ti-6Al-4V by selective laser melting via in situ martensite decomposition. Acta Mater. 2015, 85, 74–84.
Ivasishin, O.M.; Teliovich, R.V. Potential of rapid heat treatment of titanium alloys and steels. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 1999, 263, 142– 154.
Zhang, X.-Y.; Fang, G.; Leeflang, S.; Böttger, A.J.; Zadpoor, A.A.; Zhou, J. Effect of subtransus heat treatment on the microstructure and mechanical properties of additively manufactured Ti-6Al-4V alloy. J. Alloys Compd. 2018, 735, 1562–1575.
Reginster, S.; Mertens, A.; Paydas, H.; Tchoufang Tchuindjang, J.; Contrepois, Q.; Dormal, T.; Lemaire, O.; Lecomte-Beckers, J. Processing of Ti Alloys by Additive Manufacturing: A Comparison of the Microstructures Obtained by Laser Cladding, Selective Laser Melting and Electron Beam Melting. Mater. Sci. Forum 2013, 765, 413–417.
He, J.; Li, D.; Jiang, W.; Ke, L.; Qin, G.; Ye, Y.; Qin, Q.; Qiu, D. The Martensitic Transformation and Mechanical Properties of Ti6Al4V Prepared via Selective Laser Melting. Materials 2019, 12, 321.
Peyre, P.; Aubry, P.; Fabbro, R.; Neveu, R.; Longuet, A. Analytical and numerical modelling of the direct metal deposition laser process. J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 2008, 41, 025403.
Peyre, P.; Dal, M.; Pouzet, S.; Castelnau, O. Simplified numerical model for the laser metal deposition additive manufacturing process. J. Laser Appl. 2017, 29, 022304.
Hong, K.-M.; Shin, Y.C. Analysis of microstructure and mechanical properties change in laser welding of Ti6Al4V with a multiphysics prediction model. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2016, 237, 420–429.
Fan, Y.; Cheng, P.; Yao, Y.L.; Yang, Z.; Egland, K. Effect of phase transformations on laser forming of Ti-6Al-4V alloy. J. Appl. Phys. 2005, 98, 013518.
Yang, J.; Yu, H.; Yang, H.; Li, F.; Wang, Z.; Zeng, X. Prediction of microstructure in selective laser melted Ti6Al4V alloy by cellular automaton. J. Alloys Compd. 2018, 748, 281–290.
Chen, S.; Xu, Y.; Jiao, Y. A hybrid finite-element and cellular-automaton framework for modeling 3D microstructure of Ti-6Al-4V alloy during solid–solid phase transformation in additive manufacturing. Model. Simul. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2018, 26, 045011.
Liu, S.; Shin, Y.C. Prediction of 3D microstructure and phase distributions of Ti6Al4V built by the directed energy deposition process via combined multi-physics models. Addit. Manuf. 2020, 34, 101234.
Vastola, G.; Zhang, G.; Pei, Q.X.; Zhang, Y.-W. Modeling the Microstructure Evolution During Additive Manufacturing of Ti6Al4V: A Comparison Between Electron Beam Melting and Selective Laser Melting. JOM 2016, 68, 1370–1375.
Hahn, J.D.; Shin, Y.C.; Krane, M.J.M. Laser transformation hardening of Ti-6Al-4V in solid state with accompanying kinetic model. Surf. Eng. 2007, 23, 78–82.
Elmer, J.W.; Palmer, T.A.; Babu, S.S.; Zhang, W.; DebRoy, T. Phase transformation dynamics during welding of Ti-6Al-4V. J. Appl. Phys. 2004, 95, 8327–8339.
Elmer, J.W.; Palmer, T.A.; Wong, J. In situ observations of phase transitions in Ti-6Al-4V alloy welds using spatially resolved x-ray diffraction. J. Appl. Phys. 2003, 93, 1941–1947.
Tran, H.-S.; Tchuindjang, J.T.; Paydas, H.; Mertens, A.; Jardin, R.T.; Duchêne, L.; Carrus, R.; Lecomte-Beckers, J.; Habraken, A.M. 3D thermal finite element analysis of laser cladding processed Ti-6Al-4V part with microstructural correlations. Mater. Des. 2017, 128, 130–142.
Kelly, S.M.; Kampe, S.L. Microstructural evolution in laser-deposited multilayer Ti-6Al-4V builds: Part II. Thermal modeling. Metall. Mater. Trans. A 2004, 35, 1869–1879.
Bartolomeu, F.; Faria, S.; Carvalho, O.; Pinto, E.; Alves, N.; Silva, F.S.; Miranda, G. Predictive models for physical and mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V produced by Selective Laser Melting. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2016, 663, 181–192.
Babu, S.S.; Kelly, S.M.; Specht, E.D.; Palmer, T.A.; Elmer, J.W. Measurement of phase transformation kinetics during repeated thermal cycling of Ti-6Al-4V using time-resolved X-ray diffraction. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Solid-Solid Phase Transformations in Inorganic Materials 2005, 29 May−3 June, 2005, Phoenix, AZ, USA (2005); pp. 503–508.
Baykasoğlu, C.; Akyildiz, O.; Tunay, M.; To, A.C. A Process-Microstructure Finite Element Simulation Framework for Predicting Phase Transformations and Microhardness for Directed Energy Deposition of Ti6Al4V. Addit. Manuf. 2020, 101252.
Murgau, C.C.; Pederson, R.; Lindgren, L.-E. A model for Ti-6Al-4V microstructure evolution for arbitrary temperature changes. Model. Simul. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2012, 20, 055006.
Salsi, E.; Chiumenti, M.; Cervera, M. Modeling of Microstructure Evolution of Ti6Al4V for Additive Manufacturing. Metals 2018, 8, 633.
Suárez, A.; Tobar, M.J.; Yáñez, A.; Pérez, I.; Sampedro, J.; Amigó, V.; Candel, J.J. Modeling of phase transformations of Ti6Al4V during laser metal deposition. Phys. Procedia 2011, 12, 666–673.
Dąbrowski, R. The kinetics of phase transformations during continuous cooling of the Ti6Al4V alloy from the single-phase β range. Arch. Metall. Mater. 2011, 56, 703–707.
Crespo, A.; Vilar, R. Finite element analysis of the rapid manufacturing of Ti-6Al-4V parts by laser powder deposition. Scr. Mater. 2010, 63, 140–143.
Baykasoglu, C.; Akyildiz, O.; Candemir, D.; Yang, Q.; To, A.C. Predicting Microstructure Evolution During Directed Energy Deposition Additive Manufacturing of Ti-6Al-4V. J. Manuf. Sci. Eng. 2018, 140, 051003.
Irwin, J.; Reutzel, E.W.; Michaleris, P.; Keist, J.; Nassar, A.R. Predicting microstructure from thermal history during additive manufacturing for Ti-6Al-4V. J. Manuf. Sci. Eng. 2016, 138, 111007.
Elmer, J.W.; Palmer, T.A.; Babu, S.S.; Specht, E.D. In situ observations of lattice expansion and transformation rates of α and β phases in Ti-6Al-4V. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2005, 391, 104–113.
Kenel, C.; Grolimund, D.; Li, X.; Panepucci, E.; Samson, V.A.; Sanchez, D.F.; Marone, F.; Leinenbach, C. In situ investigation of phase transformations in Ti-6Al-4V under additive manufacturing conditions combining laser melting and high-speed micro-X-ray diffraction. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 16358.
Banerjee, S.; Mukhopadhyay, P. (Eds.) Phases and Crystal Structures; Pergamon Materials Series; Phase Transformations: Pergamon, Turkey, 2007; Chapter 1, Volume 12, pp. 1–86.
Ahmed, T.; Rack, H.J. Phase transformations during cooling in α + β titanium alloys. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 1998, 243, 206–211.
Dai, J.; Xia, J.; Chai, L.; Murty, K.L.; Guo, N.; Daymond, M.R. Correlation of microstructural, textural characteristics and hardness of Ti-6Al-4V sheet β-cooled at different rates. J. Mater. Sci. 2020, 19, 8346–8362.
Zhang, Q.; Xie, J.; Gao, Z.; London, T.; Griffiths, D.; Oancea, V. A metallurgical phase transformation framework applied to SLM additive manufacturing processes. Mater. Des. 2019, 166, 107618.
Neelakantan, S.; Rivera-Díaz-del-Castillo, P.E.J.; van der Zwaag, S. Prediction of the martensite start temperature for β titanium alloys as a function of composition. Scr. Mater. 2009, 60, 611–614.
Weigand, H.H. Zur Umwandlung von α + β—Titanlegierungen mit Aluminium. Z. Für Met. 1963, 54, 43–49.
Gil Mur, F.X.; Rodríguez, D.; Planell, J.A. Influence of tempering temperature and time on the α′-Ti-6Al-4V martensite. J. Alloys Compd. 1996, 234, 287–289.
Morita, T.; Hatsuoka, K.; Iizuka, T.; Kawasaki, K. Strengthening of Ti-6Al-4V Alloy by Short-Time Duplex Heat Treatment. Mater. Trans. 2005, 46, 1681–1686.
Oh, S.-T.; Woo, K.-D.; Kim, J.-H.; Kwak, S.-M. The Effect of Al and V on Microstructure and Transformation of β Phase during Solution Treatments of Cast Ti-6Al-4V Alloy. Korean J. Met. Mater. 2017, 55, 150–155.
Tanner, L.E. Time-Temperature-Transformation Diagrams of the Titanium Sheet-Rolling-Program Alloys; Departement of Defense Titanium Sheet-Rolling Program; Armour Research Foundation of Illinois Institute of Technology: Chicago, IL, USA, 1959.
Jovanović, M.T.; Tadić, S.; Zec, S.; Mišković, Z.; Bobić, I. The effect of annealing temperatures and cooling rates on microstructure and mechanical properties of investment cast Ti-6Al-4V alloy. Mater. Des. 2006, 27, 192–199.
Koike, M.; Greer, P.; Owen, K.; Lilly, G.; Murr, L.E.; Gaytan, S.M.; Martinez, E.; Okabe, T. Evaluation of Titanium Alloys Fabricated Using Rapid Prototyping Technologies—Electron Beam Melting and Laser Beam Melting. Materials 2011, 4, 1776– 1792.
Beyl, K.; Mutombo, K.; Kloppers, C.P. Tensile properties and microstructural characterization of additive manufactured, investment cast and wrought Ti6Al4V alloy. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2019, 655, 012023.
Sahoo, R.; Jha, B.B.; Sahoo, T.K. Effect of primary alpha phase variation on mechanical behaviour of Ti-6Al-4V alloy. Mater. Sci. Technol. 2015, 31, 1486–1494.
Zuback, J.S.; DebRoy, T. The Hardness of Additively Manufactured Alloys. Materials 2018, 11, 2070.
Tan, P.; Shen, F.; Li, B.; Zhou, K. A thermo-metallurgical-mechanical model for selective laser melting of Ti6Al4V. Mater. Des. 2019, 168, 107642.
Montelione, A.; Ghods, S.; Schur, R.; Wisdom, C.; Arola, D.; Ramulu, M. Powder Reuse in Electron Beam Melting Additive Manufacturing of Ti6Al4V: Particle Microstructure, Oxygen Content and Mechanical Properties. Addit. Manuf. 2020, 35, 101216.
Shi, R.; Khairallah, S.; Heo, T.W.; Rolchigo, M.; McKeown, J.T.; Matthews, M.J. Integrated Simulation Framework for Additively Manufactured Ti-6Al-4V: Melt Pool Dynamics, Microstructure, Solid-State Phase Transformation, and Microelastic Response. JOM 2019, 71, 3640–3655.
Tan, J.H.K.; Sing, S.L.; Yeong, W.Y. Microstructure modelling for metallic additive manufacturing: A review. Virtual Phys. Prototyp. 2020, 15, 87–105.
DebRoy, T.; Mukherjee, T.; Wei, H.L.; Elmer, J.W.; Milewski, J.O. Metallurgy, mechanistic models and machine learning in metal printing. Nat. Rev. Mater. 2021, 6, 48–68.
Pascon, F.; Habraken, A.M. Finite element study of the effect of some local defects on the risk of transverse cracking in continuous casting of steel slabs. Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 2007, 196, 2285–2299.
Zhu, Y.Y.; Cescotto, S. Unified and mixed formulation of the 8-node hexahedral elements by assumed strain method. Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 1996, 129, 177–209.
Yang, J.; Sun, S.; Brandt, M.; Yan, W. Experimental investigation and 3D finite element prediction of the heat affected zone during laser assisted machining of Ti6Al4V alloy. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2010, 210, 2215–2222.
Giannetti, C.; Lucini, B.; Vadacchino, D. Machine Learning as a universal tool for quantitative investigations of phase transitions. Nucl. Phys. B 2019, 944, 114639.
Larmuseau, M.; Sluydts, M.; Theuwissen, K.; Duprez, L.; Dhaene, T.; Cottenier, S. Race against the Machine: Can deep learning recognize microstructures as well as the trained human eye? Scr. Mater. 2021, 193, 33–37.
Johnson, N.S.; Vulimiri, P.S.; To, A.C.; Zhang, X.; Brice, C.A.; Kappes, B.B.; Stebner, A.P. Invited review: Machine learning for materials developments in metals additive manufacturing. Addit. Manuf. 2020, 36, 101641.
Song, S.J.; Che, W.K.; Zhang, J.B.; Huang, L.K.; Duan, S.Y.; Liu, F. Kinetics and microstructural modeling of isothermal austenite-to-ferrite transformation in Fe-C-Mn-Si steels. J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 2019, 35, 1753–1766.
Zong, H.; Pilania, G.; Ding, X.; Ackland, G.J.; Lookman, T. Developing an interatomic potential for martensitic phase transformations in zirconium by machine learning. Npj Comput. Mater. 2018, 4, 1–8.
Mu, W.; Rahaman, M.; Rios, F.L.; Odqvist, J.; Hedström, P. Predicting strain-induced martensite in austenitic steels by combining physical modelling and machine learning. Mater. Des. 2021, 197, 109199.
Matsumoto, H.; Bin, L.; Lee, S.-H.; Li, Y.; Ono, Y.; Chiba, A. Frequent Occurrence of Discontinuous Dynamic Recrystallization in Ti-6Al-4V Alloy with α′ Martensite Starting Microstructure. Metall. Mater. Trans. A 2013, 44, 3245–3260.