paternalistic stereotypes; emotional Stroop task; social sharing of emotions; affect
Abstract :
[en] Age discrimination at work can potentially affect every worker. Indeed, like ‘old’ workers, young ones hired in their first job elicit the idea that they have quite interesting social abilities but lack of competence, which constitutes a case of paternalistic stereotypes (Fiske, Cuddy, Glick, & Xu, 2002). Generally, the negative (incompetence) facet of such stereotypes is not blatantly expressed, but is subtly conveyed behind an apparently positive discourse. Consequently, it is considered as being generally under-detected, while harmful. In this paper, we examine whether paternalistic stereotyping’s under-detection is real or if it is due to the use of inadequate measures. Based on a study showing that targets feel that something is wrong (Dardenne, Dumont, & Bollier 2007), we rely on affective measures to investigate whether the detection of the subtly conveyed negative facet of paternalistic stereotypes calls for subtle, implicit measures. In Study 1, explicit self-reports of targets’ affective states after a meeting with a paternalistic boss revealed mainly positive affect. In Study 2, an implicit emotional measure however revealed the presence of a negative affective state. The last Study, using a more ecological affective measure, demonstrates that paternalistic stereotypes trigger an ambivalent affective reaction. Altogether, the three studies suggest that the negative facet of paternalistic stereotypes is not as under-detected as we thought.
Avolio, B. J. & Barrett, G. V. (1987). Effects of age stereotyping in a simulated interview. Psychology and Aging, 2, 56-63. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.2.1.56
Barreto, M. & Ellemers, N. (2005). The burden of benevolent sexism: How it contributes to the maintenance of gender inequalities. European Journal of Social. Psychology, 35, 633-642. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.270
Barreto, M. & Ellemers, N. (2013). Sexism in contemporary societies: How it is expressed, perceived, confirmed, and resisted. In: Ryan, M. & Branscombe, N. (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of gender and psychology, 289-306. London, United Kingdom: SAGE Publications, Ltd. DOI: https://doi. org/10.4135/9781446269930.n18
Becker, J. C. & Wright, S. C. (2011). Yet another dark side of chivalry: Benevolent sexism undermines and hostile sexism motivates collective action for social change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 62-77. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1037/a0022615
Beilock, S. L., Jellison, W. A., Rydell, R. J., McConnell, A. R. & Carr, T. H. (2006). On the causal mechanisms of stereotype threat: Can skills that don't rely heavily on working memory still be threatened? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 1059-1071. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1177/0146167206288489
Bosson, J. K., Haymovitz, E. L. & Pinel, E. C. (2004). When saying and doing diverge: The effects of stereotype threat on self-reported versus non-verbal anxiety. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 247-255. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0022-1031(03)00099-4
Brewer, M. B. (1999). The psychology of prejudice: Ingroup love and outgroup hate? Journal of Social Issues, 55, 429-444. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00126
Brooke, L. & Taylor, P. (2005). Older workers and employment: managing age relations. Ageing and Society, 25, 415-429. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/ S0144686X05003466
Carney, D. R., Banaji, M. R. & Krieger, N. (2010). Implicit measures reveal evidence of personal discrimination. Self and Identity, 9, 162-176. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1080/13594320902847927
Chasteen, A. L., Schwarz, N. & Park, D. C. (2002). The activation of aging stereotypes in younger and older adults. Journal of Gerontology B: Psychological Sciences Social and Sciences, 57, 540-547. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1093/geronb/57.6.P540
Chaudoir, S. R. & Quinn, D. M. (2010). Bystander sexism in the intergroup context: The impact of cat-calls on women's reactions towards men. Sex Roles, 62, 623-634. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11199-009-9735-0
Clark, R. & Gochett, P. (2006). Interactive effects of perceived racism and coping responses predict a school-based assessment of blood pressure in black youth. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 32, 1-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/ s15324796abm3201-1
Cuddy, A. J., Fiske, S. T. & Glick, P. (2008). Warmth and competence as universal dimensions of social perception: The stereotype content model and the BIAS map. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 61-149. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1016/S0065-2601(07)00002-0
Czopp, A. & Monteith, M. J. (2003). Confronting prejudice (literally): Reactions to confrontations of racial and gender bias. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 532-544. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177/0146167202250923
Dardenne, B., Dumont, M. & Bollier, T. (2007). Insidious dangers of benevolent sexism: Consequences for women's performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 764-779. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.93.5.764
D'Augelli, A. R. & Hershberger, S. L. (1993). African American undergraduates on a predominantly White campus: Academic factors, social networks, and campus climate. Journal of Negro Education, 62, 67-81. DOI: https://doi. org/10.2307/2295400
Desmette, D. & Gaillard, M. (2008). When a "worker" becomes an "older worker": The effects of age-related social identity on attitudes towards retirement and work. Career Development International, 13, 168-185. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1108/13620430810860567
Dijker, A. J. (1987). Emotional reactions to ethnic minorities. European Journal of Social Psychology, 17, 305-325. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420170306
Dumont, M., Sarlet, M. & Dardenne, B. (2010). Be too kind to a woman, she'll feel incompetent: Benevolent sexism shifts self-construal and autobiographical memories toward incompetence. Sex Roles, 62, 545-553. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1007/s11199-008-9582-4
Eckes, T. (2002). Paternalism and envious gender stereotypes: Testing predictions from the stereotype content model. Sex Roles, 47, 99-114. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1023/A:1021020920715
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A. & Lang, A. G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G.∗Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41, 1149-1160. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.41.4.1149
Fazio, R. H., Jackson, J. R., Dunton, B. C. & Williams, C. J. (1995). Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: a bona fide pipeline? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 1013-1027. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.6.1013
Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J. C., Glick, P. & Xu, J. (2002). A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 878-902. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.878
Gaertner, S. L. & Dovidio, J. F. (1986). The aversive form of racism. In: Dovidio, J. F. & Gaertner, S. L. (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism, 61-89. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
Glick, P. & Fiske, S. T. (1996). TheAmbivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 491-512. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.491
Gonzales, P. M., Blanton, H. & Williams, K. J. (2002). The effects of stereotype threat and double-minority status on the test performance of Latino women. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 659-670. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177/0146167202288010
Gotlib, I. H. & Cane, D. B. (1987). Construct accessibility and clinical depression: a longitudinal investigation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 96, 199-204. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1037/0021-843X.96.3.199
Gotlib, I. H. & McCann, C. D. (1984). Construct accessibility and depression: an examination of cognitive and affective factors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 427-439. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.47.2.427
Kaiser, C. R. & Miller, C. T. (2001). Stop complaining!: The social costs of making attributions to discrimination. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 254-263. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177/0146167201272010
Kaiser, C. R. & Miller, C. T. (2003). Derogating the victim: The interpersonal consequences of blaming events on discrimination. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 6, 227-237. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177/13684302030063001
Kite, M. E., Stockdale, G. D., Whitley, B. E. & Johnson, B. T. (2005). Attitudes toward younger and older adults: An updated meta-analytic review. Journal of Social Issues, 61, 241-266. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2005.00404.x
Klonoff, E. A. & Landrine, H. (1995). The schedule of sexist events. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 19, 439-470. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1995.tb00086.x
Krings, F., Sczesny, S. & Kluge, A. (2011). Stereotypical inferences as mediators of age discrimination: The role of competence and warmth. British Journal of Management, 22, 187-201. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1467-8551.2010.00721.x
Leonard, D. J., Moons, W. G., Mackie, D. M. & Smith, E. R. (2011). "We're mad as hell and we're not going to take it anymore": Anger self-stereotyping and collective action. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 14, 99-111. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177/1368430210373779
Loretto, W., Duncan, C. & White, P. J. (2000). Ageism and employment: controversies, ambiguities and younger people's perceptions. Ageing and Society, 20, 279-302. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/ S0144686X00007741
Luminet, O., Bouts, P., Delie, F., Manstead, A. S. R. & Rimé, B. (2000). Social sharing of emotion following exposure to a negatively valenced situation. Cognition and Emotion, 14, 661-688. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1080/02699930050117666
Mackie, D. M., Devos, T. & Smith, E. R. (2000). Intergroup emotions: Explaining offensive action tendencies in an intergroup context. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 602-616. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.4.602
Mackie, D. M. & Smith, E. R. (2002). Intergroup emotions and the social self: Prejudice reconceptualized as differentiated reactions to outgroups. In: Forgas, J. P. & Williams, K. D. (Eds.), The social self: Cognitive, interpersonal, and intergroup perspectives, 309-326. New York, NY: Psychology Press.
Mathews, A. & MacLeod, C. (1985). Selective processing of threat cues in anxiety states. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 23, 563-569. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1016/0005-7967(85)90104-4
McConahay, J. B. (1986). Modern racism, ambivalence, and the modern racism scale. In: Dovidio, J. F. & Gaertner, S. L. (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism, 91-125. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
McGregor, J. & Gray, L. (2002). Stereotypes and older workers: The New Zealand experience. Social Policy Journal of New Zealand, 18, 163-177.
Meagher, B. E. & Aidman, E. V. (2004). Individual differences in implicit and declared self-esteem as predictors of response to negative performance evaluation: Validating Implicit Association Test as a measure of self-attitudes. International Journal of Testing, 4, 19-42. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1207/s15327574ijt0401-2
Moya, M., Glick, P., Expósito, F., de Lemus, S. & Hart, J. (2007). It's for your own good: Benevolent sexism and women's reactions to protectively justified restrictions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 1421-1434. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1177/0146167207304790
North, M. S. & Fiske, S. T. (2012). An inconvenienced youth? Ageism and its potential intergenerational roots. Psychological Bulletin, 138, 982-997. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1037/a0027843
O'Brien, L. T. & Crandall, C. S. (2003). Stereotype threat and arousal: Effects on women's math performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 782-789. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167 203029006010
Piolat, A. & Bannour, R. (2009). EMOTAIX: un scénario de Tropes pour l'identification automatisée du lexique émotionnel et affectif. L'année Psychologique, 109, 655-698. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4074/ S0003503309004047
Quirin, M., Kazén, M., Rohrmann, S. & Kuhl, J. (2009). Implicit but not explicit affectivity predicts circadian and reactive cortisol: Using the Implicit Positive and Negative Affect Test. Journal of Personality, 77, 401-426. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00552.x
Richards, A., French, C. C., Johnson, W., Naparstek, J. & Williams, J. (1992). Effects of mood manipulation and anxiety on performance of an emotional Stroop task. British Journal of Psychology, 83, 479-491. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1992.tb02454.x
Rimé, B. (2007). Interpersonal emotion regulation. In: Gross, J. J. (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation, 466-485. New-York, NY: Guilford Press.
Rimé, B. (2009a). Emotion elicits the social sharing of emotion: Theory and empirical review. Emotion Review, 1, 60-85. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177/1754073908097189
Rimé, B. (2009b). More on the social sharing of emotion: In defense of the individual, of culture, of private disclosure, and in rebuttal of an old couple of ghosts known as "cognition and emotion". Emotion Review, 1, 94-96. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177/1754073908099132
Rosen, B. & Jerdee, T. H. (1976a). The nature of job-related age stereotypes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 61, 180-183. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.61.2.180
Rosen, B. & Jerdee, T. H. (1976b). The influence of age stereotypes on managerial decisions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 61, 428-432. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.61.4.428
Rupp, D. E., Vodanovich, S. J. & Crede, M. (2006). Age bias in the workplace: The impact of ageism and causal attributions. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36, 1337-1364. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.0021-9029.2006.00062.x
Sarlet, M., Dumont, M., Delacollette, N. & Dardenne, B. (2012). Prescription of protective paternalism for men in romantic and work contexts. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 36, 444-457. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177/0361684312454842
Schmader, T. & Johns, M. (2003). Converging evidence that stereotype threat reduces working memory capacity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 440-452. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.3.440
Schrauf, R. W. & Sanchez, J. (2004). The preponderance of negative emotion words in the emotion lexicon: A cross-generational and cross-linguistic study. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 25, 266-284. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1080/01434630408666532
Singer, M. S. (1986). Age stereotypes as a function of profession. Journal of Social Psychology, 126, 691-692. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1986.9713 647
Snape, E. & Redman, T. (2003). Too old or too young? The impact of perceived age discrimination. Human Resource Management Journal, 13, 78-89. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1748-8583.2003.tb00085.x
Spaas, C. & Vandenbroucke, S. (2012). Trop jeune? Trop vieux? Sondage d'opinion. Conclusions et recommandations. Bruxelles Centre pour l'égalité des chances et la lutte contre le racisme.
Swim, J. K., Aikin, K. J., Hall, W. S. & Hunter, B. A. (1995). Sexism and racism: Old-fashioned and modern prejudices. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 199-214. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.68.2.199
Swim, J. K., Cohen, L. L., Hyers, L. L., Fitzgerald, D. F. & Bylsma, W. H. (1997). Everyday experiences with prejudice: A daily diary study. Unpublished manuscript, Pennsylvania State University.
Swim, J. K., Hyers, L. L., Cohen, L. L. & Ferguson, M. J. (2001). Everyday sexism: Evidence for its incidence, nature, and psychological impact from three daily diary studies. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 31-53. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1111/0022-4537.00200
Swim, J. K., Mallett, R., Russo-Devosa, Y. & Stangor, C. (2005). Judgments of sexism: A comparison of the subtlety of sexism measures and sources of variability in judgments of sexism. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 406-411. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2005.00240.x
Tuckett, A. G. (2006). On paternalism, autonomy and best interests: Telling the (competent) aged-care resident what they want to know. International Journal of Nursing Practice, 12, 166-173. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1440-172X.2006.00565.x
Walzer, A. S. & Czopp, A. M. (2011). Able but unintelligent: Including positively stereotyped Black subgroups in the Stereotype Content Model. The Journal of social psychology, 151, 527-530. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.201 0.503250
Watts, F. N., McKenna, F. P., Sharrock, R. & Trezise, L. (1986). Colour naming of phobia-related words. British journal of Psychology, 77, 97-108. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1986. tb01985.x
Williams, J. M. G., Mathews, A. & MacLeod, C. (1996). The Emotional Stroop task and psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 3-24. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1037/0033-2909.120.1.3
Williams, J. M. G. & Nulty, D. D. (1986). Construct accessibility, depression and the emotional stroop task: Transient mood or stable structure? Personality and Individual Differences, 7, 485-491. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(86)90127-3
