Trauma de guerra; War trauma; apoyo parental; asistencia escolar; children; desarrollo psicomotor; exposición a trauma; niño; parental support; psychomotor development; school attendance; trauma exposure; Humans; Child; Male; Democratic Republic of the Congo/epidemiology; Female; Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic/psychology; Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic/epidemiology; Psychomotor Disorders/epidemiology; Psychomotor Disorders/etiology
Abstract :
[en] Background: Persistent armed conflict in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo has resulted in large-scale population displacement, exposing many children to traumatic experiences. Although the psychological consequences of such exposure are well documented, its impact on psychomotor development remains insufficiently investigated, particularly in African settings affected by chronic violence.Objective: This study aimed to compare the psychomotor development of displaced children living in Lubumbashi according to their level of exposure to war-related trauma (direct, indirect, or none) and to examine the potential moderating role of school attendance and parental support.Method: The sample comprised 300 children aged 6-12 years (M = 9.55, SD = 2.06) living in Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Participants were classified into direct exposure, indirect exposure, or no exposure groups based on structured interviews, caregiver reports, and contextual assessments consistent with DSM-5 trauma-exposure criteria. Post-traumatic symptoms were assessed using the French version of the Child Post-Traumatic Stress Reaction Index (CPTS-RI), and psychomotor development was evaluated using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-Second Edition (MABC-2). Group differences were examined using robust ANOVA and Yuen's post hoc tests (Yuen, K. K. [1974]. The two-sample trimmed t for unequal population variances. Biometrika, 61(1), 165-170).Results: Trauma exposure significantly affected psychomotor performance, F(2, 111.89) = 458.90, p < .001, η² = .93. Children exposed to trauma, whether directly or indirectly, exhibited significantly lower psychomotor scores than unexposed children. No significant difference was observed between the direct and indirect exposure groups. Trauma exposure emerged as the strongest predictor of psychomotor outcomes, whereas age, school attendance, and parental support were not significant predictors (adjusted R² = .77).Conclusion: Exposure to war-related trauma was strongly associated with impaired psychomotor development in displaced children. Direct and indirect exposure were associated with comparable psychomotor vulnerabilities, underscoring the need for integrated psychosocial and developmental interventions in conflict-affected settings. [en] War-related trauma is associated with psychomotor developmental difficulties in displaced children aged 6–12 years.Direct and indirect exposure to armed conflict is associated with similar levels of psychomotor impairment.Trauma exposure predicts psychomotor difficulties independently of age, schooling, and parental support.
Research Center/Unit :
ARCH - Adaptation, Résilience et CHangement - ULiège
Disciplines :
Treatment & clinical psychology
Author, co-author :
Musasa, Joëlle Ngoie; Research Unit in Health Psychology and Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Human Movement Sciences, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium ; Faculty of Social Sciences, Evangelical University of Africa (UEA), Bukavu, Democratic Republic of Congo ; Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Lubumbashi, Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of Congo
Ibrahim, Malko; Research Unit in Health Psychology and Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Human Movement Sciences, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
Kaganda, Philippe; Faculty of Social Sciences, Evangelical University of Africa (UEA), Bukavu, Democratic Republic of Congo
Blavier, Adelaïde ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Adaptation, Résilience et CHangement (ARCH)
Foucart, Jennifer ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département des Sciences de l'activité physique et de la réadaptation ; Research Unit in Health Psychology and Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Human Movement Sciences, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
Language :
English
Title :
War trauma and psychomotor developmental disorders in children aged 6-12 in Lubumbashi: a comparative study.
Master de spécialisation en psychomotricité. Option psycho-trauma de type court. Soutien à la relève académique de UEA (Bukavu RDC) et projets de promotion de la santé en réseau avec des acteurs de la population civile
Funders :
ARES - Académie de Recherche et d'Enseignement Supérieur
Abi-Habib, R., Kheir, W., Yaktine, N., Maouch, M. E., & Tohme, P., (2025). The psychological outcomes of direct and indirect exposure to trauma: The Lebanese experience. Psychiatric Quarterly, 96(4), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-025-10149-3
Ajuriaguerra, J., (1980). Manuel de psychiatrie de l’enfant (2e éd. entièrement refond.). Masson.
Albaret, J.-M., Marquet-Doléac, J., Lewandowski, C., Soppelsa, R., Fahed, É, Laurent, A., & Gebrael Matta, G., (2018). Chapitre 4. Échelles de développement psychomoteur. Dans Dirigé par J. Albaret, P. Scialom et F. Giromini Manuel d'enseignement de psychomotricité: Tome 5. Examen psychomoteur et tests (p. 61–86). De Boeck Supérieur. https://doi.org/10.3917/dbu.albar.2018.01.0061
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5e éd). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
Beaulieu, A., (2021). 6. Le développement psychomoteur. Psychanalyse et clinique, 103–125. https://shs.cairn.info/article/ERES_BEAUL_2021_01_0103
Bekhechi, A. K., (2019). L’effet de l’activité physique et sportive régulière sur le développement cognitif des enfants. Public & Nonprofit Management Review, 4(1). https://revues.imist.ma/index.php/PNMReview/article/view/15745
Bernhardt, K., Le Beherec, S., Uppendahl, J. R., Fleischmann, M., Klosinski, M., Rivera, L. M., Samaras, G., Kenney, M., Müller, R., & Nehring, I., (2024). Young children’s development after forced displacement: A systematic review. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 18(1), 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-024-00711-5
Bonneil, A., & Meunier, C., (2020). Psychomotricité et troubles psychomoteurs. Concrètement que faire?Tom Pousse.
Boutinaud, J., (2017). Comment le corps vient à l’enfant? Quelques enjeux autour des représentations corporelles au cours du développement. La psychiatrie de l’enfant, 60(1), 145–166. https://doi.org/10.3917/psye.601.0145
Bouvier, G., (2019). Les traumatismes vicariants : Définition, contexte et propositions de prise en charge. European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, Numéro coordonné par: Olivier Piedfort-Marin, 3(3), 163–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejtd.2019.06.004
Buenrostro-Jáuregui, M. H., Muñóz-Sánchez, S., Rojas-Hernández, J., Alonso-Orozco, A. I., Vega-Flores, G., Tapia-de-Jesús, A., & Leal-Galicia, P., (2025). A comprehensive overview of stress, resilience, and neuroplasticity mechanisms. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 26(7), 3028. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26073028
Crocq, M.-A., & Guelfi, J.-D., (avec American psychiatric association). (2015). DSM-5 : Manuel diagnostique et statistique des troubles mentaux (5e éd). Elsevier Masson.
Cruz, D., Lichten, M., Berg, K., & George, P., (2022). Developmental trauma: Conceptual framework, associated risks and comorbidities, and evaluation and treatment. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13, 800687. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.800687
Da Silva, L. D., & Akian, M., (2021). Urgences, psychomotricien et traumatisme : Approche psychomotrice d’événements à potentiel traumatique. L’information Psychiatrique, 97(7), 559–563.
Daskalakis, N. P., Xu, C., Bader, H. N., Chatzinakos, C., Weber, P., Makotkine, I., Lehrner, A., Bierer, L. M., Binder, E. B., & Yehuda, R., (2021). Intergenerational trauma is associated with expression alterations in glucocorticoid-and immune-related genes. Neuropsychopharmacology, 46(4), 763–773. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-020-00900-8
Diamond, A., & Ling, D. S., (2019). Aerobic-Exercise and resistance-training interventions have been among the least effective ways to improve executive functions of any method tried thus far. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 37, 100572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2018.05.001
Even, D., Cohen, G. H., Wang, R., & Galea, S., (2024). The cumulative contribution of direct and indirect traumas to the production of PTSD. PLoS One, 19(8), e0307593. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307593
Faure, L. H., (2022). L’expérience du déplacement et de la guerre. Revue d’histoire de l’enfance «irrégulière», 24(1), 49–67. https://doi.org/10.3917/rhei.024.0049
Field, A. P., & Wilcox, R. R., (2017). Robust statistical methods : A primer for clinical psychology and experimental psychopathology researchers. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 98, 19–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2017.05.013
Gee, D. G., (2022). Neurodevelopmental mechanisms linking early experiences and mental health : Translating science to promote well-being among youth. The American Psychologist, 77(9), 1033–1045. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0001107
Giromini, F., (2024). La construction de l’identité psychomotrice des origines à nos jours. Le Carnet PSY, 274(9), 24–27.
Henderson, S. E., Sugden, D. A., & Barnett, A. L., (2015). MABC-2: Batterie d’Évaluation du Mouvement chez l’Enfant. ECPA/Pearson.
Heying, S. A., & Witherington, D. C., (2024). Posttraumatic growth in grown orphaned child survivors of genocide in Guatemala. In R. Berger (Ed.), The Routledge international handbook of posttraumatic growth (pp. 141–153). Routledge.
Holt, J. t., Emmerik, A. A. P. v., Blanken, P., Borgdorff, J. E., Holt, P. P. C. t., Kok, R. M., Mouthaan, J., Pieterse, B., & Berg, J. F. V. d., (2022). Direct and indirect exposure to trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, and poor subjective sleep quality in patients with substance use disorder. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 32(3), 188–195. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2022.22368
Imbriano, G., Waszczuk, M., Rajaram, S., Ruggero, C., Miao, J., Clouston, S., Luft, B., Kotov, R., & Mohanty, A., (2022). Association of attention and memory biases for negative stimuli with post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 85, 102509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2021.102509
Kuang, N., Liu, Z., Yu, G., Wu, X., Becker, B., Fan, H., Peng, S., Zhang, K., Zhao, J., Kang, J., Dong, G., Zhao, X., Sahakian, B. J., Robbins, T. W., Cheng, W., Feng, J., Schumann, G., Palaniyappan, L., & Zhang, J., (2023). Neurodevelopmental risk and adaptation as a model for comorbidity among internalizing and externalizing disorders : Genomics and cell-specific expression enriched morphometric study. BMC Medicine, 21(1), 291. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-023-02920-9
Kube, T., Elssner, A. C., & Herzog, P., (2023). The relationship between multiple traumatic events and the severity of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms–evidence for a cognitive link. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 14(1), 2165025. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2023.2165025
Lindenmuth, M., Chen, Y.-Y., Lee, T.-H., Melville, N., Casas, B., & Kim-Spoon, J., (2025). A six-year longitudinal study examining chronicity and timing of maltreatment effects on risk-related functional connectivity change across adolescence. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 74, 101577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2025.101577
Mair, P., & Wilcox, R., (2020). Robust statistical methods in R using the WRS2 package. Behavior Research Methods, 52(2), 464–488. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-019-01246-w
May, C. L., & Wisco, B. E., (2016). Defining trauma : How level of exposure and proximity affect risk for posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 8(2), 233–240. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000077
McLaughlin, K. A., Weissman, D., & Bitrán, D., (2019). Childhood adversity and neural development: A systematic review. Annual Review of Developmental Psychology, 1(1), 277–312. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121318-084950
Mestre, L., & Veyret-Morau, M., (2024). Mineurs de retour de zone : Attaque des liens et complémentarité du soin (en trauma complexe). Dialogue (Los Angeles, Calif), 244(2), 51–66. https://doi.org/10.3917/dia.244.0051
Moro, M.-R., Asensi, H., Lachal, C., & Radjack, R., (2024). Soigner les souffrances psychologiques des enfants dans la guerre. Bulletin de l’Académie Nationale de Médecine, 208(3), 276–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.banm.2024.01.004
Mukosa, E. K., (2023). La protection des enfants pendant les conflits armés: Étude faite à Beni dans le Nord-Kivu. Parcours et Initiatives: Revue interdisciplinaire du Graben (PIRIG) (23), Article 23. https://doi.org/10.57988/crig-2392
Ngoie Musasa, J., Michiels, S., Kaganda, P., Blavier, A., & Foucart, J., (2025). War trauma and their disruptive influences on the psychomotor development of children: A narrative. International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), 14(6), 238–246. https://doi.org/10.21275/SR25520002611
Olliac, B., Birmes, P., Bui, E., Allenou, C., Brunet, A., Claudet, I., Sales de Gauzy, J., Grandjean, H., & Raynaud, J.-P., (2014). Validation of the French version of the child post-traumatic stress reaction index: Psychometric properties in French speaking school-aged children. PLoS One, 9(12), e112603. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0112603
Omar, A., (2015). L’état de stress post-traumatique chez des enfants et des adolescents syriens réfugiés au Liban. Le Journal des psychologues, 332(10), 20–27. https://doi.org/10.3917/jdp.332.0020
Paggetti, M., (2020). Interactions corporelles et construction de l’expérience : L’exemple de la psychomotricité auprès d’enfants. Les Sciences de l’éducation - Pour l’Ère nouvelle, 53(4), 35–54. https://doi.org/10.3917/lsdle.534.0035
Pireyre, E. W., (2021). Le schéma corporel (2) : Données actuelles et définition. Neuropsychiatrie de l’Enfance et de l’Adolescence, 69(8), 415–421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurenf.2021.07.004
Romano, H., (2022). Les enfants et la guerre. Odile Jacob.
Rubinstein, D., Lahad, M., Aharonson-Daniel, L., Proyer, R. T., Mizrahi, D., & Harpaz-Rotem, I., (2025). Understanding PTSD and dissociation in wartime: Direct and indirect trauma exposure. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2025.2571109
Schaefer, J. D., Cheng, T. W., & Dunn, E. C., (2022). Sensitive periods in development and risk for psychiatric disorders and related endpoints: A systematic review of child maltreatment findings. The Lancet. Psychiatry, 9(12), 978–991. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(22)00362-5
Scialom, P., Bénavidès, T., Lesage, B., Boirot-Cécillon, J., Busschaert, B., Giromini, F., Teillet, A., Albaret, J.-M., Soppelsa, R., & Baranes, C. P., (2015). Chapitre 1. Spécificités de l’approche psychomotrice et pluridisciplinarité des méthodes. In Manuel d’enseignement de psychomotricité (pp. 3–98). De Boeck Supérieur. https://doi.org/10.3917/dbu.albar.2015.02.0003
Shazeen Suleman, R. M., Vandermorris, A., & Société canadienne de pédiatrie. (2025, octobre 15). Les soins aux enfants et aux adolescents touchés par les conflits armés : Une approche reposant sur les droits, Société canadienne de pédiatrie. https://cps.ca/fr/documents/position/conflits-armes
Smith, K. E., & Pollak, S. D., (2020). Early life stress and development: Potential mechanisms for adverse outcomes. Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 12(1), 34. https://doi.org/10.1186/s11689-020-09337-y
Soussignan, R., (2023). Modifications épigénétiques et effets protecteurs de l’environnement socio-affectif de l’enfant: Une revue. Enfance; Psychologie, Pedagogie, Neuropsychiatrie, Sociologie, 3(3), 265–285. https://doi.org/10.3917/enf2.233.0265
Tsuchigahata, M., (2023). Symptômes post-traumatiques et expression symbolique du traumatisme chez les enfants réfugiés ayant été exposés à la guerre. University of Scherbrook.
UNICEF. (2025, février 17). RDC: Des milliers d’enfants déplacés alors que la crise s’aggrave à l’est du pays. UNICEF. https://www.unicef.fr/article/rdc-des-milliers-denfants-déplacés-alors-que-la-crise-saggrave-a-lest-du-pays/
Verbecque, E., Denysschen, M., Coetzee, D., Valtr, L., Bonney, E., & Smits-Engelsman, B., (2025). Which items of the movement assessment battery for children are most sensitive for identifying children with probable developmental coordination disorder ? Results from a large-scale study. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 157, 104904. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2024.104904
Wu, X., Zhang, K., Kuang, N., Kong, X., Cao, M., Lian, Z., Liu, Y., Fan, H., Yu, G., Liu, Z., Cheng, W., Jia, T., Sahakian, B. J., Robbins, T. W., Feng, J., Schumann, G., Palaniyappan, L., & Zhang, J., (2025). Author correction: Developing brain asymmetry shapes cognitive and psychiatric outcomes in adolescence. Nature Communications, 16(1), 6325. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-61785-z
Yu, G., Liu, Z., Wu, X., Becker, B., Zhang, K., Fan, H., Peng, S., Kuang, N., Kang, J., Dong, G., Zhao, X.-M., Schumann, G., Feng, J., Sahakian, B. J., Robbins, T. W., Palaniyappan, L., & Zhang, J., (2023). Common and disorder-specific cortical thickness alterations in internalizing, externalizing and thought disorders during early adolescence: An Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development study. Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, 48(5), E345–E356. https://doi.org/10.1503/jpn.220202
Yu, G., Wu, X., Liu, Z., Shi, M., Fan, H., Liu, Y., Kuang, N., Peng, S., Lian, Z., Huang, C., Wu, H., Fan, B., Feng, J., Cheng, W., Sahakian, B. J., Robbins, T. W., Becker, B., & Zhang, J., (2025). Genetic influence and neural pathways underlying the dose-response relationships between wearable-measured physical activity and mental health in adolescence. Psychiatry Research, 349, 116503. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2025.116503
Yuen, K. K., (1974). The two-sample trimmed t for unequal population variances. Biometrika, 61(1), 165–170. https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/61.1.165
