adaptation; climate change; socioeconomic vulnerability; urban heat islands; Yaoundé; Geography, Planning and Development; Management, Monitoring, Policy and Law
Abstract :
[en] Cities in Central Africa, especially Yaoundé in Cameroon, are experiencing rising temperatures, which is a pressing environmental issue. This article examines urban heat islands (UHIs) and the socio-economic vulnerability of residents from 2015 to 2030. It finds that heatwaves are becoming more frequent and intense, posing health risks to the population. Using satellite data, surveys of 300 households, and field observations, researchers discovered that surface temperatures have increased from 24–31°C in 2015 to a projected 38°C by 2030. The area covered by hard surfaces has also grown significantly, from 24,911.6 hectares to an expected 132,815.4 hectares. Notably, 91% of households reported feeling the heat rise, revealing varying levels of vulnerability. Approximately 45.5% of families earn between 50,000 and 100,000 XAF (approximately 76 to 152 euros) per month, which limits their ability to adapt to extreme weather conditions. Health issues reported include headaches, fatigue, insomnia, and respiratory problems. The study recommends targeted solutions to help residents adapt to UHIs, emphasizing the need for improved urban infrastructure and support for vulnerable communities. In conclusion, it stresses the urgent need for concrete actions to mitigate UHI impacts in Yaoundé and address the socio-economic disparities affecting household vulnerability, ultimately aiming for a healthier and more resilient urban environment.
Adegun OB, Ayoola O., 2021. Heat stress adaptation within informal, low-income urban settlements in Africa: a review. Sustainability. 13(19):10921.
Ademe. 2013. Indicateurs de vulnérabilité d’un territoire au changement climatique (2013). Document de travail, 64. https://outil-cactus.parc-golfe-morbihan.bzh/medias/2016/09/Indicateurs-de-vulnerabilite-dun-territoire-au-changement-climatique.pdf
Ahmed N, Altamura P, Giampaoletti M, Hemeida F, Mohamed A., 2024. Optimizing human thermal comfort and mitigating the urban heat island effect on public open spaces in Rome, Italy through sustainable design strategies. Sci Rep. 14(1):19931. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-65794-8
Allen F., 2015. The state of the climate justice movement in South Africa. Cap Nat Soc. 26(2):46–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/10455752.2015.1017731
Almeida CRD, Teodoro AC, Gonçalves A. 2021. Study of the urban heat island (UHI) using remote sensing data/techniques: a systematic review. Environments. 8(10):105. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments8100105
Amir Siddique M, Wang Y, Xu N, Ullah N, Zeng P. 2021. The spatiotemporal implications of urbanization for urban heat islands in Beijing: a predictive approach based on CA–Markov modeling (2004–2050). Remote Sens. 13(22):4697. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13224697
Anjos M, et al. 2025. Lcz4r package R for local climate zones and urban heat islands. Sci Rep. 15(1):7710. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-92000-0
Assako Assako RJ. 2012. À propos de l’opération d’embellissement de Yaoundé, capitale d’Afrique centrale. Les Cahiers d’Outre-Mer[online], 259, mis en ligne le 01 juillet, 2015. 65(259):371–393. [accessed 2024 Oct15]. https://doi.org/10.4000/com.6652
Atangana Bamela H. 2025. La gestion du transport urbain au prisme de la « décharge » à Yaoundé (Cameroun). EchoGéo[En ligne], 72 | 2025, mis en ligne le 30 juin 2025, consulté le 17 juillet 2025. 72. http://journals.openedition.org/echogeo/29325
Awono A, Assembe Mvondo S, Tsanga R, Guizol P, Peroches A. 2023. Restauration des paysages forestiers et régimes fonciers au Cameroun: acquis et handicaps. CIFOR.
Baker WL. 1989. A review of models of landscape change. Landscape Ecol. 2(2):111–133. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00137155
Barnwell G, Wood N. 2022. Climate justice is central to addressing the climate emergency’s psychological consequences in the global South: a narrative review. S Afr J Psychol. 52(4):486–497. https://doi.org/10.1177/00812463211073384
Bocquier P. 2005. Urbanization in Africa: trends and prospects. Afr Popul Stud. 20(1):1–18.
Bond P. 2014. Climate justice in, by, and for Africa. In: Routledge handbook of the climate change movement. Taylor and Francis; pp 205–221.
Bopda A. 1997. Yaoundé dans la construction nationale au Cameroun: territoire urbain et intégration [Thèse de Doctorat]. Géographie, Université de Paris I, Panthéon Sorbonne, 491.
Brockerhoff M. 1998. World urbanization prospects: the 1996 revision. Popul Dev Rev. 24(4):883–885. https://doi.org/10.2307/2808041
Brou TY, Rwanyiziri G, Uwayezu E., 2024. Dynamique urbaine et développement d’îlots de chaleur urbains à Kigali, Rwanda. Les Cah d’Afrique de l’Est/The East Afr Rev. 59.
Brown DG, Pijanowski BC, Duh JD. 2000. Modeling the relationships between land use and land cover on private lands in the Upper Midwest, USA. J Environ Manag. 59(4):247–263. https://doi.org/10.1006/jema.2000.0369
Brunet Y, Viguier. 2017. Impact de la végétation sur le microclimat urbain et la qualité de l’air. In: Dans Y, Brunet S, Delalande P-J, Derian V, Issarny R, Lacombe C, Ladaurade J-P, dirs. La chimie et les grandes villes. EDP Sciences; p 272. https://www.perlego.com/book/3056570/la-chimie-et-les-grandes-villes-pdf
Bryant B, Mohai P. 1992. Race and the incidence of environmental hazards: a time for discourse. Westview Press.
BUCREP. 2010. Rapport de présentation des résultats définitifs du recensement de 2005. 67.
Bullard RD. 1990. Dumping in Dixie: race, class, and environmental quality. Westview Press.
Carter JG, et al. 2015. Climate change and the city: building capacity for urban adaptation. Prog Plann. 95:1–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progress.2013.08.001
Cobbinah PB, Erdiaw-Kwasie MO, Amoateng P. 2015. Africa’s urbanisation: implications for sustainable development. Cities. 47:62–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2015.03.013
CUY. 2019. Plan de Mobilité Urbaine Soutenable pour la Communauté Urbaine de Yaoundé. Rapport technique ‐ version finale. 217.
Dissanayake DMSLB, Morimoto T, Ranagalage M, Murayama Y. 2025. A seasonal assessment of urban thermal behavior and its links to land use patterns in Harare, Zimbabwe. Sci Afr. 28:e02677. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2025.e02677
Djongyang N. 2022. Climate change and some adaptation measures in the Sudano-Sahelian zone of Cameroon. E3S web of conferences, EDP Sciences (Vol. 354. p 01004).
Dodman D, Mitlin D. 2014. The national and local politics of climate change adaptation in Zimbabwe. Clim Devel. 7(3):223–234. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2014.934777
Domegni KMS, Azouma YO. 2022. Productive uses of energy: a solution for promoting energy justice in rural areas in West Africa. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 160:112298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112298
Dongmo C. 2008. The green revolution and food self-sufficiency: cameroon’s land theory of economic development. Cameroon. Cameroon-Link.
Drapeau L-M, Beaudoin M, Vandycke L, Brunstein M. 2021. Mesures de lutte contre les îlots de chaleur urbains: mise à jour 2021 p 157. Institut national de santé publique du Québec.
Durang X. 2003. Vivre et exister à Yaoundé [Thèse de géographie]. Université de Paris IV, 618.
El Ghazouani L, et al. 2021. Combining satellite data and spatial analysis to assess the UHI amplitude and structure within urban areas: the case of Moroccan cities. Urban Sci. 5(3):67. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci5030067
Elias P, Omojola A. 2015. Case study: the challenges of climate change for Lagos, Nigeria. Curr Opin In Environ Sustainability. 13:74–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2015.02.008
ENEO. 2023. Rapport annuel, 53.
Enjema FM, Molem CS, Dobdinga CF, Afuge AR, Ngoe MB. 2020. Urbanization and environmental sustainability in Cameroon: an auto-regressive distributed lag model technique. Eur J Criminol Econ Financ Res. 4(3):P26.
Erdiaw-Kwasie MO, Abunyewah M, Edusei J, Alimo EB. 2020. Citizen participation dilemmas in water governance: an empirical case of Kumasi, Ghana. World Devel Perspectives. 20, 100242.
Foissard X. 2015. L’îlot de chaleur urbain et le changement climatique: application à l’agglomération rennaise. Géographie Université Rennes. 2:2015. Français.
Fousséni F, et al. 2019. Flore des espaces verts urbains de la ville d’Atakpamé au Togo. Synthèse: Revue des Sci et de la Tech. 25(2):25–39.
Gago E, Roldan J, Pacheco-Torres R, Ordóñez J. 2013. The city and urban heat islands: a review of strategies to mitigate adverse effects. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 25:749–758. [accessed 2025 Mar1]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.05.057
Garuma GF. 2023. Tropical surface urban heat islands in East Africa. Sci Rep. 13(1):4509.
Geddes L. 2023. Vagues de chaleur mortelles: comment les hautes températures affectent le corps. https://www.gavi.org/fr/vaccineswork/vagues-chaleurs-mortelles-comment-hautes-temperatures-affectent-corps
He J, Wang W, Sharifi A, Liu X. 2023. Progress, knowledge gap and future directions of urban heat mitigation and adaptation research through a bibliometric review of history and evolution. Energ Build. 287(15):112976. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2023.112976
Holling CS. 1973. Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annu Rev Ecol Syst. 4(1):1–23. https://institutparisregion.fr/fileadmin/NewEtudes/Etude_774/Les_ilots_de_chaleur_urbains_.pdf
IPCC. 2013. Climate change 2013: the physical science basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Khaled H, Hamoodi M, Ai-Hameedawi A. 2023. Urban heat islands: a review of contributing factors, effects and data. In: IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. Vol. 1129, No. 1, p. 012038. IOP Publishing.
Leal Filho W, Icaza LE, Neht A, Klavins M, Morgan EA. 2018. Coping with the impacts of urban heat islands. A literature-based study on understanding urban heat vulnerability and the need for resilience in cities in a global climate change context. J Cleaner Prod. 171:1140–1149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.10.086
Le Mentec S. 2022. Impact de la végétalisation sur l’îlot de chaleur urbain et la pollution d’ozone: quantification par une approche de modélisation à l’échelle d’un quartier [Doctoral dissertation]. Université Paris-Saclay, AgroParisTech.
Lemonsu A, Viguie V, Daniel M, Masson V. 2015. Vulnerability to heat waves: impact of urban expansion scenarios on urban heat island and heat stress in Paris (France). Urban Clim. 14:586–605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2015.10.007
Li X, et al. 2025. Revisiting urban heat island effects in China: multi-satellite evidence from the ESA-CCI land surface temperature product. Sustain Cities Soc. 123:106281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2025.106281
Li X, Stringer L, Chapman S, Dallimer M. 2021. How urbanisation alters the intensity of the urban heat island in a tropical African city. [online]. PLOS ONE. 16(7):e0254371. [accessed 2025 février19th]. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0254371
Mahmood R, Hassan F. 2025Mar. Exploring the role of population dynamics in surface urban heat island hotspots in peri-urban Dhaka. Forum Geografi. 39(1):20–37. https://doi.org/10.23917/forgeo.v39i1.6648
Matcheubou A, Yamba J, Tatietse TT. 2009. Impact du parc automobile sur la congestion du trafic et la pollution de l’air dans la ville de Yaoundé. Colloque international Environnement et transports dans des contextes différents, Ghardaïa, Algérie. 245–252.
Mbianda Kemadjou F. 2020. Comprendre la construction des périphéries urbaines à Lomé et Yaoundé. Thèse de Doectorat PhD. École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne. 243. https://infoscience.epfl.ch/entities/publication/256c2b19-6c76-4ce3-afac-cc5b64091a2d
MINEPDED. 2015. Plan national d’adaptation aux changements climatiques du Cameroun. Ministere de l’environnement, de la protection de la nature et du développement durable.
Mugelé R. 2018. La grande muraille verte: géographie d’une utopie environnementale au Sahel [Doctoral dissertation]. Université Paris 1-Panthéon Sorbonne.
Mwanzu A, Nguyu W, Nato J, Mwangi J. 2023. Promoting sustainable environments through urban green spaces: insights from Kenya. Sustainability. 15(15):11873. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151511873
Nakicenovic N. 2000. Special report on emissions scenarios (SRES). Cambridge University Press.
Ncongwane KP, Botai JO, Sivakumar V, Botai CM., 2021. A literature review of the impacts of heat stress on human health across Africa. Sustainability. 13(9):5312.
Njimanted GF, Mobit MO. 2013. Determinants of traffic congestion in the metropolis of Douala, Cameroon: an integrated approach. J Educ Chang Cameroon Acad Sci. 11(2&3):209–222.
Njoh AJ. 1999. The state, urban development policy and society in Cameroon. Cities. 16(2):111–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0264-2751(99)00006-2
Nkrumah B. 2021. Eco-activism: youth and climate justice in South Africa. Environ Claims J. 33(4):328–350. https://doi.org/10.1080/10406026.2020.1858599
Nkwemoh CA, Tchindjang M. 2018. Urban sprawl and agriculture: a case study of the Yaounde metropolis (Cameroon). Revue Scientifique et Technique Forêt et Environnement du Bassin du Congo-RIFFEAC. 10:45–58.
Ogunbode CA. 2022. Climate justice is social justice in the global South. Nat Hum Behaviour. 6(11):1443–1443. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-022-01456-x
Ojuku T, Ntemngwe P, Tedongfack D. 2022. Understanding urban growth through heat islands using remotely sensed data: yaoundé case study Cameroon. Curr Urban Stud. 10(2):163–187. https://doi.org/10.4236/cus.2022.102010
Okereke C, Coventry P. 2016. Climate justice and the international regime: before, during, and after Paris. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Clim Change. 7(6):834–851. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.419
Owona D. 2019. Droits de l’homme et justice climatique en Afrique. African Human Rights Yearbook/Annuaire Africain des Droits de l’Homme, 3. https://upjournals.up.ac.za/index.php/ahry/article/view/3891/3599
Pagès N. 2008. Hétérogénéité du travail et développement en Côte d’Ivoire: une analyse à partir des dynamiques productives et spatiales. Eur J Dev Res. 20(1):117–140. https://doi.org/10.1080/09578810701853298
Pinto DGL, Loureiro CFG, de Matos Sousa FFL, Motte-Baumvol B. 2023. The effects of informality on socio-spatial inequalities in accessibility to job opportunities: evidence from Fortaleza, Brazil. J Retailing Transp Geogr. 108:103577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2023.103577
Pratama A, Fajrin F, Defwaldi D. 2025. Analysis of the relationship between local climate zone and land surface temperature in Padang City. Jurnal Penelitian Rumpun Ilmu Teknik. 4(1):281–294. https://doi.org/10.55606/juprit.v4i1.4880
Rey G, et al. 2009. Heat exposure and socio-economic vulnerability as synergistic factors in heat-wave-related mortality. Eur J Epidemiol. 24(9):495–502. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10654-009-9374-3
Sabrin S, Karimi M, Nazari R. 2020. Developing vulnerability index to quantify urban heat islands effects coupled with air pollution: a case study of Camden, NJ. ISPRS Int J Geo-Inf. 9(6):349. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi9060349
Saltelli A. 2000. Sensitivity analysis for chemical models. Chem Rev. 100(11):2811–2826.
Sawaba ALE, et al. 2024. Urban forestry in Sub-Saharan Africa: challenges, contributions, and future directions for combating climate change and restoring forest landscape.
Scheba A, Turok I, Visagie J. 2021. Inequality and urban density: socio-economic drivers of uneven densification in Cape Town. Environ Urbanization Asia. 12(1_suppl):S107–S126. https://doi.org/10.1177/0975425321998026
Sietchiping R, Nguendo-Yongsi HB. 2008. Chapitre 5 urban infrastructure and services: how planning and governance are failing Yaoundé citizens. VISAGES ET DÉFIS DES PRINCIPALES VILLES CAMEROUNAISES. 71. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Christopher-Bryant-3/publication/266390956_Visages_et_defis_des_principales_villes_camerouaises_pp_175/links/54ebdef10cf2ff89649ea993/Visages-et-defis-des-principales-villes-camerouaises-pp-175.pdf#page=78
Soufiane IM, Djaouad RD, Farah B, Djamel S. 2025. Spatiotemporal impact of urbanization on urban heat island using Landsat imagery in Oran, Algeria: 1984–2024. Urban Sci. 9(4):95. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci9040095
Srivastava S, Zhao X, Manay A, Chen Q. 2021. Effective ventilation and air disinfection system for reducing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infection risk in office buildings. Sustain Cities Soc. 75:103408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2021.103408
Tachega MA, et al. 2025. Co2 emissions inequality in Africa: regional analysis and strategies for climate justice. Energy. 320:135180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2025.135180
Tan ML, Shaharudin SM, Zaiton S, Shukla R. 2021. Heat stress adaptation within informal, low-income urban settlements in Africa: a review. Sustainability. 13(19):10921. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14138182
Tchindjang M, et al. 2005. Administrative and spatial evolution of Yaounde town from 1898 to 1992. Unpublished paper. http://www.cartesia.org/geodoc/icc2005/pdf/poster/TEMA5/MESMIN%20TCHINDJANG
Tchindjang M, et al. 2012. Administrative and spatial evolution of Yaounde town from 1898 to 1992. Unpublished paper. [accessed 2024 Sep15]. http://www.cartesia.org/geodoc/icc2005/pdf/poster/TEMA5/MESMIN%20TCHINDJANG.pdf
Tchindjang M, et al. 2020. Land use and land cover changes in the Centre Region of Cameroon.
Thorsen D. 2012. Children working in the urban informal economy: evidence from West and Central Africa.
Tiwari AD, Kushwaha AP, Sahai AK, Mishra V., 2025. Development of multimodel-based hydrologic outlook for India. J Hydrometeorology (published online ahead of print 2025). https://doi.org/10.1175/JHM-D-23-0186.1
Turner MG. 1987. Spatial simulation of landscape changes in Georgia: a comparison of threetransition models. Landscape Ecol. 1(1):29–36. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02275263
Ullah N, et al. 2023. The impact of urbanization on urban heat island: predictive approach using google earth engine and Ca-Markov modelling (2005–2050) of Tianjin city, China. Int J Environ Res Pub Health Public Health. 20(3):2642. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20032642
UNDP. 2024. Les villes ont un rôle crucial à jouer dans la lutte contre le changement climatique. Voici pourquoi. [accessed 2020 May]. https://climatepromise.undp.org/fr/news-and-stories/les-villes-ont-un-role-crucial-jouer-dans-la-lutte-contre-le-changement-climatique
USGS. 2020. Landsat 8 data users handbook. U.S. Geological Survey.
Usman I, et al. 2023. Landscape composition and its effect on the urban thermal environment in Kendari City. IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci. 1276(1):012027. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1276/1/012027
Valérie O, Epo B. 2013. Banque mondiale (2017). Changement climatique et gestion des risques de catastrophe au Cameroun. Rapport diagnostic. 79.
Van Vuuren DP, et al. 2011. The representative concentration pathways: an overview. Clim Change. 109(1):5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-011-0148-z
Wang X, et al. 2025. Assessment of thermal vulnerability and analysis of influencing factors in urban functional areas of Foshan City, China. Chin Geogr Sci. 35:852–866. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11769-025-1527-0
Williams J, et al. 2023. Africa and climate justice at Cop27 and beyond: impacts and solutions through an interdisciplinary lens. UCL Open Environ. 5:e062. https://doi.org/10.14324/111.444/ucloe.000062
Wukelic GE, Gibbons DE, Martucci LM, Foote HP. 1989. Radiometric calibration of Landsat thematic mapper thermal band. Remote Sens Environ. 28:339–347. https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-4257(89)90125-9
Ymba M. 2022Décembre. Analyse des effets des îlots de chaleur urbains sur la santé des populations de la ville d’Abidjan (Côte d’Ivoire). Fondation Croix-Rouge française, Les Papiers de la Fondation, n°46.
Zhang L, Menendez M. 2020. Modeling and evaluating the impact of city block size on traffic performance. J Urban Plann Dev. 146(3):04020021. [accessed 2024 Apr12]. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)UP.1943-5444.0000580
