Humans acting as ‘super predators' in Central African forests: trophic downgrading and disruption of predator–prey dynamics

Predator–prey interactions are key ecological processes structuring wildlife communities by shaping species abundances and distributions, thereby influencing ecosystem functioning. They result from the interplay of bottom–up (e.g. prey availability) and top–down (e.g. predator control) forces. By altering species diversity and behaviors, humans can reshape trophic structures and predator–prey relationships. In Central African forests, where leopards Panthera pardus and African golden cats Caracal aurata are the largest carnivores, we examined trophic structure, spatiotemporal predator–prey dynamics, and responses to human presence and hunting pressure, a largely understudied issue. We hypothesized that increasing human pressure alters community structure and trophic organization, consistent with trophic downgrading and the view of humans as ‘super predators'. Using camera trap data from three sites along a human pressure gradient in the Republic of Congo and Cameroon, we tested two predictions: (P1) in low-pressure forests, functional diversity is higher and predator–prey dynamics are shaped by ecologically-driven bottom–up and top–down processes; (P2) in high-pressure forests, humans exert top–down control across multiple trophic levels, reducing functional diversity and disrupting spatiotemporal predator–prey relationships. Combining community diversity analyses, structural equation modeling, and diel activity analyses, we found patterns consistent with both predictions. In low-pressure areas, prey availability and predator presence jointly structured spatiotemporal patterns, supporting functionally rich communities. Conversely, in the most disturbed area with higher human density and intense hunting, both focal predators were absent, ungulate detections declined by 41–89%, and small generalists became up to 23 times more common than in undisturbed areas. Prey spatiotemporal patterns also shifted, reflecting human avoidance. These findings suggest that humans can act as ‘super predators' in Central African forests, overriding natural predator–prey spatiotemporal organization and disproportionately altering mammal communities. Together, our results indicate that limiting hunting pressure across large, connected landscapes appears critical for maintaining trophic network integrity and ecosystem functioning.