Towards the integration of small modular reactors in industrial hubs: A multi-dimensional discussion

Larbanois, Antoine; Miftari, Bardhyl; Derval, Guillaume; Ernst, Damien

doi:10.1016/j.erss.2026.104859

Download

Article (Scientific journals)

Towards the integration of small modular reactors in industrial hubs: A multi-dimensional discussion

Larbanois, Antoine; Miftari, Bardhyl; Derval, Guillaume et al.

2026 • In Energy Research and Social Science, 139, p. 104859

Peer reviewed

Permalink
https://hdl.handle.net/2268/347433

DOI
10.1016/j.erss.2026.104859

Files (1)Send to Details Statistics Bibliography Similar publications

Files

Full Text

1-s2.0-S2214629626003300-main.pdf

Author postprint (1.5 MB)

Download

All documents in ORBi are protected by a user license.

Send to

RIS BibTex APA Chicago Permalink X Linkedin

Details

Keywords :

SMR; Heat; Hubs; Industry; Nuclear

Abstract :

[en] This article discusses the potential for deploying small modular reactors (SMRs) within industrial hubs, using a decentralised configuration to provide direct on-site energy for industrial processes. To assess the feasibility of such a deployment, the analysis adopts the perspective of a stakeholder considering its implementation. This approach follows a four-question discussion, gradually bringing out the main challenges a project of this kind might encounter, from regulatory and operational constraints to economic feasibility and wider societal implications. The main insights derived from this discussion suggest that SMRs could meet a significant portion of industrial energy demand, thereby supporting sectoral decarbonisation, preserving industrial capacity, and enhancing the resilience of energy grids. However, substantial challenges remain, including ensuring the safety of reactors located near industrial facilities, adapting regulatory frameworks to facilitate SMR development, and demonstrating economic competitiveness. In addition, SMR deployment requires careful consideration of nuclear proliferation risks, effective management of radioactive waste, and the prevention of potential nuclear incidents, while maintaining the support of local communities.

Disciplines :

Energy

Author, co-author :

Larbanois, Antoine ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Montefiore Institute of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science

Miftari, Bardhyl ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Montefiore Institute of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science

Derval, Guillaume ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Montefiore Institute of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science

Ernst, Damien ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département d'électricité, électronique et informatique (Institut Montefiore) > Smart grids

Language :

English

Title :

Towards the integration of small modular reactors in industrial hubs: A multi-dimensional discussion

Publication date :

22 July 2026

Journal title :

Energy Research and Social Science

ISSN :

2214-6296

Publisher :

Elsevier BV

Volume :

139

Pages :

104859

Peer reviewed :

Peer reviewed

Additional URL :

https://api.elsevier.com/content/article/PII:S2214629626003300?httpAccept=text/xml

Available on ORBi :

since 23 July 2026

Statistics

Number of views

269 (9 by ULiège)

Number of downloads

196 (3 by ULiège)

More statistics

Scopus citations^®

Scopus citations^®
without self-citations

OpenAlex citations

Bibliography

IDDRI, DDP report. A decade of national climate action: stocktake and the road ahead, 2025.
IPCC, Climate change 2014: synthesis report. Contribution of working groups I, II and III to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change [core writing team, R.K. Pachauri and L.A. Meyer (eds.)], IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 2014.
M. Åhman, L. J. Nilsson, B. Johansson, Global climate policy and deep decarbonization of energy-intensive industries, Climate Policy 17 (2017) 634–649. 10.1080/14693062.2016.1167009.
A. Gailani, S. Cooper, S. Allen, A. Pimm, P. Taylor, R. Gross, Assessing the potential of decarbonization options for industrial sectors, Joule 8 (2024) 576–603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2024.01.007. 10.1016/j.joule.2024.01.007.
C. A. McMillan, R. Boardman, M. McKellar, P. Sabharwall, M. Ruth, S. Bragg-Sitton, Generation and use of thermal energy in the U.S. industrial sector and opportunities to reduce its carbon emissions, Technical Report, Idaho National Lab. (INL), Idaho Falls, ID (United States) National Renewable Energy Lab. (NREL), Golden, CO (United States), 2016. https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1334495. 10.2172/1334495.
G. P. Thiel, A. K. Stark, To decarbonize industry, we must decarbonize heat, Joule 5 (2021) 531–550. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2542435120305754. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2020.12.007.
A. Peakman, B. Merk, The role of nuclear power in meeting current and future industrial process heat demands, Energies 12 (2019). https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/12/19/3664. 10.3390/en12193664.
M. F. Ruth, O. R. Zinaman, M. Antkowiak, R. D. Boardman, R. S. Cherry, M. D. Bazilian, Nuclear-renewable hybrid energy systems: opportunities, interconnections, and needs, Energy Conversion and Management 78 (2014) 684–694. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0196890413007516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2013.11.030.
D. Procházková, J. Prochazka, V. Dostál, Resiliency of industrial complexes powered by small modular reactors, 2023. 10.3850/978-981-18-8071-1P068-cd.
C. Angulo, E. Bogusch, A. Bredimas, N. Delannay, C. Viala, J. Ruer, et al, EUROPAIRS: The European project on coupling of high temperature reactors with industrial processes, Nuclear Engineering and Design 251 (2012) 30–37. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0029549311010612. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nucengdes.2011.12.025, 5th International Topical Meeting on High Temperature Reactor Technology (HTR 2010).
NEA/IEA, Projected costs of generating electricity 2020, OECD Publishing, Paris, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1787/a6002f3b-en. 10.1787/a6002f3b-en.
H. Xiang, Y. Zhu, The ethics issues of nuclear energy: hard lessons learned from Chernobyl and Fukushima, Journal of Health Ethics 7 (2011). http://dx.doi.org/10.18785/ojhe.0702.06. 10.18785/ojhe.0702.06.
K. Hasegawa, The Fukushima nuclear accident and Japan’s civil society: context, reactions, and policy impacts, International Sociology 29 (2014) 283–301. https://doi.org/10.1177/0268580914536413. 10.1177/0268580914536413.
Ingersoll, D. Tilson, Passive safety features for small modular reactors, World Scientific, 2011, p. 113–121. https://doi.org/10.1142/97898143659320012.
The Royal Society, Nuclear cogeneration: civil nuclear energy in a low-carbon future, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1098/rs-policy.2026-18.
M. R. Amin, M. A. Kowsar, M. A. R. Sheikh, M. A. Chowdhury, A review on the future of SMR reactors in nuclear energy, Energy and Thermofluids Engineering 4 (2024) 17–23. https://www.asps-journals.com/index.php/ete/article/view/737. 10.38208/ete.v4.737.
E. Shobeiri, F. Genco, D. Hoornweg, A. Tokuhiro, Small modular reactor deployment and obstacles to be overcome, Energies 16 (2023). https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/16/8/3468. 10.3390/en16083468.
M. Cooper, Small modular reactors and the future of nuclear power in the united states, Energy Research & Social Science 3 (2014) 161–177. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629614000929. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2014.07.014.
S. J. Friedmann, Z. Fan, K. Tang, Low-carbon heat solutions for heavy industry: sources, options, and costs today, Columbia University Center on Global Energy Policy (2019).
Danish Energy Agency, Technology data for industrial process heat, 2025. https://ens.dk/en/analyses-and-statistics/technology-catalogues, Accessed november 09, 2025.
M. Rehfeldt, T. Fleiter, F. Toro, A bottom-up estimation of the heating and cooling demand in European industry, Energy Efficiency 11 (2018) 1057–1082. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12053-017-9571-y. 10.1007/s12053-017-9571-y.
D. Hittner, High temperature industrial nuclear cogeneration, NEA nuclear innovation 2050 R&D cooperative programme proposal, 2017. www.oecd-nea.org/upload/docs/application/pdf/2020-07/09hittnerni2050heatandcogeneration.pdf.
D. Baron, L. Hallstadius, 2.19 - fuel performance of light water reactors (uranium oxide and mox), in: R. J. Konings (Ed.), Comprehensive Nuclear Materials, Elsevier, Oxford, 2012, pp. 481–514. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080560335000409. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-056033-5.00040-9.
A. Bredimas, Results of a European industrial heat market analysis as a pre-requisite to evaluating the HTR market in Europe and elsewhere, Nuclear Engineering and Design 271 (2014) 41–45. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0029549313005906. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nucengdes.2013.11.006, sI : HTR 2012.
GIF, Generation IV goals, technologies and GIF R&D roadmap, https://www.gen-4.org/generation-iv-criteria-and-technologies, 2025. Accessed november 10, 2025.
OECD/NEA, High-temperature gas-cooled reactors and industrial heat applications, Nuclear Development, OECD Publishing, Paris, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1787/7406b814-en. 10.1787/7406b814-en.
IAEA, Lifetime unit capability factor up to 2025, https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/WorldStatistics/LifeTimeUnitCapabilityFactor.aspx, 2026. Accessed june 3, 2026.
IAEA, Opportunities for cogeneration with nuclear energy, number NP-T-4.1 in Nuclear Energy Series, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 2017. https://www.iaea.org/publications/10877/opportunities-for-cogeneration-with-nuclear-energy.
A. Larbanois, B. Miftari, A. Mouchamps, E. Ayyildiz Kerem, V. Schryvers, G. Derval, D. Ernst, Lead-cooled fast reactor SMR integration: an off grid study case based on a real-life demand, Preprint, SCK CEN - Belgian Nuclear Research Centre, 2025. https://orbi.uliege.be/handle/2268/331891, pre-print.
M. Green, P. Sabharwall, M. Mckellar, S.-J. Yoon, C. Abel, B. Petrovic, D. Curtis, Nuclear hybrid energy system: molten salt energy storage, Idaho Falls, Idaho, USA: Idaho National Laboratory (2013).
OECD/NEA, Technical and economic aspects of load following with nuclear power plants, Nuclear Development, OECD Publishing, Paris, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1787/29e7df00-en. 10.1787/29e7df00-en.
Z. Zhang, J. Jiang, On load-following operations of small modular reactors, Progress in Nuclear Energy 173 (2024) 105274. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149197024002245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnucene.2024.105274.
A. Marmier, M. Fütterer, Nuclear powered heat pumps for near-term process heat applications, Nuclear Engineering and Design 238 (2008) 2272–2284. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0029549308001076. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nucengdes.2008.02.014.
A. Gupta, P. Sabharwall, P. D. Armatis, B. M. Fronk, V. Utgikar, Coupling chemical heat pump with nuclear reactor for temperature amplification by delivering process heat and electricity: A techno-economic analysis, Energies 15 (2022). https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/15/16/5873. 10.3390/en15165873.
P. D. Armatis, A. Gupta, P. Sabharwall, V. Utgikar, B. M. Fronk, A chemical-absorption heat pump for utilization of nuclear power in high temperature industrial processes, International Journal of Energy Research 45 (2021) 14612–14629. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/er.6721. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.6721. http://arxiv.org/abs/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/er.6721 arXiv:https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/er.6721.
IAEA, Method for developing arrangements for response to a nuclear or radiological emergency, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria, 2003.
IEA, Milestones in the development of a national infrastructure for nuclear power, Technical Report NG-G-3.1 (Rev. 2), International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 2024. https://www.iaea.org/publications/10873/milestones-in-the-development-of-a-national-infrastructure-for-nuclear-power. https://doi.org/10.61092/iaea.hff3-zuam.
IAEA, Site survey and site selection for nuclear installations, No. SSG-35, 2015. https://www.iaea.org/fr/node/281179.
R. Testoni, A. Bersano, S. Segantin, Review of nuclear microreactors: Status, potentialities and challenges, Progress in Nuclear Energy 138 (2021) 103822. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149197021001888. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnucene.2021.103822.
J. A. Christensen, W. L. Moe, P. Jordan, Determining the appropriate emergency planning attributes for microreactors, Technical Report, Idaho National Laboratory (INL), Idaho Falls, ID (United States), 2020. https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1668830. 10.2172/1668830.
M. Hadid Subki, Global trends, prospects and challenges for innovative SMRs deployment, presentation at the INPRO dialogue forum, 2012. https://nucleus.iaea.org/sites/INPRO/df5/Session%204/2.HadidSubkiIAEA0829nodistribute.pdf, iNPRO DF5 Session 4.
B. Zohuri, Small modular reactors as renewable energy sources, Springer, 2019.
O. O. Milman, A. V. Ptakhin, V. S. Krylov, A. Y. Kartuesova, A. V. Kondratev, et al., Promising dry cooling technologies for low and medium power reactors, Voprosy Atomnoj Nauki i Tekhniki. Seriya: Yaderno-Reaktornye Konstanty (2024) 279–293.
W. Zhang, Y. Li, P. Liu, H. Wei, Improved design and economic estimation of cold-end systems for inland nuclear power plants, Energies 17 (2024). https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/17/10/2410. 10.3390/en17102410.
CORDEL Working Group, Facilitating international licensing of small modular reactors, 2015. https://world-nuclear.org/our-association/publications/working-group-reports/cordel-facilitating-international-licensing-of-sma, published in August 2015.
IAEA, Nuclear harmonization and standardization initiative, https://nucleus.iaea.org/sites/smr/SitePages/Nuclear-Harmonization-and-Standardization-Initiative.aspx, 2022. Accessed march 17, 2026.
G. Locatelli, Why are megaprojects, including nuclear power plants, delivered overbudget and late? Reasons and remedies, 2018. https://arxiv.org/abs/1802.07312. http://arxiv.org/abs/1802.07312[ arXiv:1802.07312].
C. A. Lloyd, T. Roulstone, R. E. Lyons, Transport, constructability, and economic advantages of SMR modularization, Progress in Nuclear Energy 134 (2021) 103672. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnucene.2021.103672.
IEA, The path to a new era for nuclear energy, 2025. https://www.iea.org/reports/the-path-to-a-new-era-for-nuclear-energy, licence: CC BY 4.0.
A. Grubler, An assessment of the costs of the french nuclear PWR program 1970–2000, IIASA Interim Report IR-09-036, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), Laxenburg, Austria, 2009.
J. R. Lovering, A. Yip, T. Nordhaus, Historical construction costs of global nuclear power reactors, Energy Policy 91 (2016) 371–382. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421516300106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2016.01.011.
Lazard, Lazard’s levelized cost of energy+ (lcoe+), https://www.lazard.com/research-insights/levelized-cost-of-energyplus-lcoeplus/, 2025. Accessed december 12, 2025.
G. Rothwell, Projected electricity costs in international nuclear power markets, Energy Policy 164 (2022) 112905. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421522001306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2022.112905.
S. Choi, E. Jun, I. Hwang, A. Starz, T. Mazour, S. Chang, A. R. Burkart, Fourteen lessons learned from the successful nuclear power program of the Republic of Korea, Energy Policy 37 (2009) 5494–5508. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421509005990. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2009.08.025.
G. Rothwell, Can the European nuclear power industry compete with the Chinese nuclear power industry?, Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development 8 (2024) 8715. https://doi.org/10.24294/jipd.v8i11.8715. 10.24294/jipd.v8i11.8715.
B. Steigerwald, J. Weibezahn, M. Slowik, C. von Hirschhausen, Uncertainties in estimating production costs of future nuclear technologies: a model-based analysis of small modular reactors, Energy 281 (2023) 128204. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360544223015980. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2023.128204.
A. Asuega, B. J. Limb, J. C. Quinn, Techno-economic analysis of advanced small modular nuclear reactors, Applied Energy 334 (2023) 120669. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306261923000338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2023.120669.
M. Vanatta, D. Patel, T. Allen, D. Cooper, M. T. Craig, Technoeconomic analysis of small modular reactors decarbonizing industrial process heat, Joule 7 (2023) 713–737. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2542435123001216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2023.03.009.
N. Van Hee, H. Peremans, P. Nimmegeers, Economic potential and barriers of small modular reactors in Europe, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 203 (2024) 114743. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032124004696. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2024.114743.
IEA, World Energy Outlook 2025, Technical Report, International Energy Agency, Paris, France, 2025. https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-outlook-2025, licence: CC BY 4.0 (report); CC BY NC SA 4.0 (Annex A).
Bruegel, Upgrading Europe’s electricity grid: about more than just money, 2025. https://www.bruegel.org/policy-brief/upgrading-europes-electricity-grid-about-more-just-money, Accessed november 18, 2025.
NUWARD, Our SMR solution: designed in Europe, for Europe and beyond, https://www.nuward.com/en/our-smr-solution, 2025. Accessed december 1, 2025.
Westinghouse Electric Company, Ap300 SMR, https://westinghousenuclear.com/energy-systems/ap300-smr, 2025. Accessed december 1, 2025.
J. Vujić, R. M. Bergmann, R. Škoda, M. Miletić, Small modular reactors: simpler, safer, cheaper?, Energy 45 (2012) 288–295. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S036054421200093X. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2012.01.078, the 24th international conference on efficiency, cost, optimization, simulation and environmental impact of energy, ECOS 2011.
M. Ramana, Z. Mian, One size doesn’t fit all: social priorities and technical conflicts for small modular reactors, Energy Research & Social Science 2 (2014) 115–124. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629614000486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2014.04.015.
L. Fuks, I. Herdzik-Koniecko, K. Kiegiel, A. Miskiewicz, G. Zakrzewska-Koltuniewicz, Methods of thermal treatment of radioactive waste, Energies 15 (2022). https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/15/1/375. 10.3390/en15010375.
T. Wakabayashi, Concept of a fast breeder reactor to transmute MAs and LLFPs, Scientific Reports 11 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-01986-w.
K. Ikeda, T. Kawakita, Y. Ohkubo, High level radio-active wastes reduction through fast reactor, Progress in Nuclear Energy 37 (2000) 163–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0149-1970(00)00042-1.
L. M. Krall, A. M. Macfarlane, R. C. Ewing, Nuclear waste from small modular reactors, Proceedings of the national academy of sciences 119 (2022) e2111833119.
F. Frieß, M. Kütt, M. Englert, Proliferation issues related to fast SMRs, Annals of Nuclear Energy 85 (2015) 725–731. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306454915003424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anucene.2015.06.028.
M. Durdovic, C. Turcanu, G. Robbe Geysmans, T. P. S. Meskens, R. S. Escarrabill, L. Gonçalves, Public attitudes towards small modular reactors, An emerging research field and evidence from six countries. ECOSENS Deliverable D 1 (2025).
H. Lagerlöf, Consenting publics: fair nuclear waste repository siting?, Environmental Politics 32 (2023) 1255–1274. 10.1080/09644016.2023.2172867.
IPCC, Climate change 2022: mitigation of climate change. Contribution of working group III to the sixth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van Diemen, D. McCollum, et al (eds.)], IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 2022. 10.1017/9781009157926.008.