Projected elevation-dependent warming in the Alps: contrasting free-atmosphere and surface trends with surface energy balance drivers

Castellanos, Ian; Ménégoz, Martin; Blanchet, Juliette; Beaumet, Julien; Gallée, Hubert; Moreno-Chamarro, Eduardo; Staquet, Chantal; Fettweis, Xavier

doi:10.5194/esd-17-581-2026

Article (Scientific journals)

Projected elevation-dependent warming in the Alps: contrasting free-atmosphere and surface trends with surface energy balance drivers

Castellanos, Ian; Ménégoz, Martin; Blanchet, Juliette et al.

2026 • In Earth System Dynamics, 17 (3), p. 581-605

Peer Reviewed verified by ORBi

Permalink
https://hdl.handle.net/2268/345237

DOI
10.5194/esd-17-581-2026

Files (1)Send to Details Statistics Bibliography Similar publications

Files

Full Text

esd-17-581-2026.pdf

Author postprint (10.31 MB)

Download

All documents in ORBi are protected by a user license.

Send to

RIS BibTex APA Chicago Permalink X Linkedin

Details

Abstract :

[en] Abstract. Because of topography, climate change exhibits complex regional imprints in the Alps. This study aims at understanding the processes that link elevation-dependent warming (EDW) – i.e. the modulation of temperature trends with elevation – at seasonal scale in the Alps with the surface energy balance. We investigate projected EDW patterns in the Alps using 7 km resolution simulations spanning the period 1961–2100 made with the Modèle Atmosphérique Régional (MAR), exploring scenarios SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5 and driven by two general circulation models, EC-Earth3 and MPI-ESM1-2-HR. We find a larger yearly warming signal at high elevations (1.2 to 1.5 °C °C−1 of global warming) than at low elevations (1.1 to 1.3 °C °C−1 of global warming), with contrasted seasonal patterns and intensities (up to 2 °C °C−1 of global warming at high elevations in summer). EDW profiles are found to be different near the surface than in the free atmosphere. Near the surface, a maximum warming is found in spring at mid-elevations that is migrating to higher elevations in summer and autumn. This signal is not found in the free atmosphere. The elevation of the maximum warming is moving upward, consistently with the snowline migration over the years in a warming climate. Investigating surface energy balance trends reveals a link between the profiles of EDW and those of net shortwave radiation and energy used to melt snow. The snow-albedo feedback linked to the net shortwave radiation trend is found to be responsible for two thirds of the impact of the snowline on warming, while snow melt accounts for the last third. Melting limits the warming at high elevation when snow is persisting. We suggest that snow melting is an important driver of EDW that should be considered in any EDW-snow investigations.

Research Center/Unit :

SPHERES - ULiège

Disciplines :

Earth sciences & physical geography

Author, co-author :

Castellanos, Ian

Ménégoz, Martin

Blanchet, Juliette

Beaumet, Julien

Gallée, Hubert

Moreno-Chamarro, Eduardo

Staquet, Chantal

Fettweis, Xavier ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département de géographie > Climatologie et Topoclimatologie

Language :

English

Title :

Projected elevation-dependent warming in the Alps: contrasting free-atmosphere and surface trends with surface energy balance drivers

Publication date :

21 May 2026

Journal title :

Earth System Dynamics

ISSN :

2190-4979

eISSN :

2190-4987

Publisher :

Copernicus GmbH

Volume :

Issue :

Pages :

581-605

Peer reviewed :

Peer Reviewed verified by ORBi

Additional URL :

https://esd.copernicus.org/articles/17/581/2026/esd-17-581-2026.pdf

Available on ORBi :

since 22 May 2026

Statistics

Number of views

16 (2 by ULiège)

Number of downloads

8 (1 by ULiège)

More statistics

Scopus citations^®

Scopus citations^®
without self-citations

OpenAlex citations

Bibliography

Agosta, C., Amory, C., Kittel, C., Orsi, A., Favier, V., Gallée, H., van den Broeke, M. R., Lenaerts, J. T. M., van Wessem, J. M., van de Berg, W. J., and Fettweis, X.: Estimation of the Antarctic surface mass balance using the regional climate model MAR (1979–2015) and identification of dominant processes, The Cryosphere, 13, 281–296, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-281-2019, 2019.
Amory, C., Kittel, C., Le Toumelin, L., Agosta, C., Delhasse, A., Favier, V., and Fettweis, X.: Performance of MAR (v3.11) in simulating the drifting-snow climate and surface mass balance of Adélie Land, East Antarctica, Geosci. Model Dev., 14, 3487–3510, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-14-3487-2021, 2021.
Bacer, S., Beaumet, J., Ménégoz, M., Gallée, H., Le Bouëdec, E., and Staquet, C.: Impact of climate change on persistent cold-air pools in an alpine valley during the 21st century, Weather Clim. Dynam., 5, 211–229, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-5-211-2024, 2024.
Collao Barrios, G.: San Rafael Glacier and Northern Patagonia Icefield surface mass balance estimation from different approaches, phdthesis, Université Grenoble Alpes, https://doi.org/10.70675/947359c3z9ec2z4043z865dzcf4c91d7bfc5, 2018.
Barthel, A., Agosta, C., Little, C. M., Hattermann, T., Jourdain, N. C., Goelzer, H., Nowicki, S., Seroussi, H., Straneo, F., and Bracegirdle, T. J.: CMIP5 model selection for ISMIP6 ice sheet model forcing: Greenland and Antarctica, The Cryosphere, 14, 855–879, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-855-2020, 2020.
Beaumet, J., Ménégoz, M., Morin, S., Gallée, H., Fettweis, X., Six, D., Vincent, C., Wilhelm, B., and Anquetin, S.: Twentieth century temperature and snow cover changes in the French Alps, Reg. Environ. Change, 21, 114, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01830-x, 2021.
Beaumet, J., Menegoz, M., Gallée, H., and Chamarro, E. M.: MAR-EC-Earth3 HIST (1961–2014) and SSP245 European Alps (2015–2100), Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5838345, 2022a.
Beaumet, J., Menegoz, M., and Gallée, H.: MAR-MPI-ESM1-2-HR SSP585 European Alps (2015–2100), Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5834376, 2022b.
Beaumet, J., Menegoz, M., and Gallée, H.: MAR-MPI-ESM1-2-HR HIST (1961–2014) and SSP245 European Alps (2015–2100), Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5834221, 2022c.
Bozzo, A., Benedetti, A., Flemming, J., Kipling, Z., and Rémy, S.: An aerosol climatology for global models based on the tropospheric aerosol scheme in the Integrated Forecasting System of ECMWF, Geosci. Model Dev., 13, 1007–1034, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-1007-2020, 2020.
Brun, E., David, P., Sudul, M., and Brunot, G.: A numerical model to simulate snow-cover stratigraphy for operational avalanche forecasting, J. Glaciol., 38, 13–22, https://doi.org/10.3189/S0022143000009552, 1992.
Byrne, M. P., Boos, W. R., and Hu, S.: Elevation-dependent warming: observations, models, and energetic mechanisms, Weather Clim. Dynam., 5, 763–777, https://doi.org/10.5194/wcd-5-763-2024, 2024.
Castellanos, I., Ménégoz, M., and Gallée, H.: MARv3.14-MPI-ESM1-2-HR HIST European Alps (1961–2014), Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17569252, 2025a.
Castellanos, I., Ménégoz, M., and Gallée, H.: MARv3.14-MPI-ESM1-2-HR SSP585 European Alps (2015–2100), Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17534365, 2025b.
Castellanos, I.: Ian-CD/PhD: EDW Article, Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20274037, 2026.
Chagnaud, G., Gallée, H., Lebel, T., Panthou, G., and Vischel, T.: A Boundary Forcing Sensitivity Analysis of the West African Monsoon Simulated by the Modèle Atmosphérique Régional, Atmosphere, 11, 191, https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11020191, 2020.
Chimborazo, O., Minder, J. R., and Vuille, M.: Observations and Simulated Mechanisms of Elevation-Dependent Warming over the Tropical Andes, J. Clim., 35, 1021–1044, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-21-0379.1, 2022.
Colombo, N., Guyennon, N., Valt, M., Salerno, F., Godone, D., Cianfarra, P., Freppaz, M., Maugeri, M., Manara, V., Acquaotta, F., Petrangeli, A. B., and Romano, E.: Unprecedented snow-drought conditions in the Italian Alps during the early 2020s, Environ. Res. Lett., 18, 074014, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/acdb88, 2023.
Cornes, R. C., van der Schrier, G., van den Besselaar, E. J. M., and Jones, P. D.: An Ensemble Version of the E-OBS Temperature and Precipitation Data Sets, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 123, 9391–9409, https://doi.org/10.1029/2017JD028200, 2018.
Delhasse, A., Kittel, C., Amory, C., Hofer, S., van As, D., S. Fausto, R., and Fettweis, X.: Brief communication: Evaluation of the near-surface climate in ERA5 over the Greenland Ice Sheet, The Cryosphere, 14, 957–965, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-957-2020, 2020.
Derksen, C., Essery, R., Gustafsson, D., Menegoz, M., Krinner, G., and de Rosnay, P.: Snow CCI Climate Assessment Report, ESA Contract No.: 4000124098/18/I-NB, Deliverable No.: D5.1, 2025.
Dimri, A. P., Choudhary, A., and Kumar, D.: Elevation Dependent Warming over Indian Himalayan Region, Springer, Cham., 141–156, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29684-1_9, 2020.
Dimri, A. P., Palazzi, E., and Daloz, A. S.: Elevation dependent precipitation and temperature changes over Indian Himalayan region, Clim. Dyn., 59, 1–21, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-021-06113-z, 2022.
Eyring, V., Bony, S., Meehl, G. A., Senior, C. A., Stevens, B., Stouffer, R. J., and Taylor, K. E.: Overview of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) experimental design and organization, Geosci. Model Dev., 9, 1937–1958, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-9-1937-2016, 2016.
Fettweis, X., Box, J. E., Agosta, C., Amory, C., Kittel, C., Lang, C., van As, D., Machguth, H., and Gallée, H.: Reconstructions of the 1900–2015 Greenland ice sheet surface mass balance using the regional climate MAR model, The Cryosphere, 11, 1015–1033, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1015-2017, 2017.
Fettweis, X., B, A., P.m, D., Ghilain, N., P, P., and C, W.: Évolution actuelle (1960-2021) de l'enneigement dans les Vosges à l'aide du modèle régional du climat MAR, Bulletin de la Société Géographique de Liège, 80, https://doi.org/10.25518/0770-7576.7049, 2023.
Gallée, H. and Schayes, G.: Development of a Three-Dimensional Meso-γ Primitive Equation Model: Katabatic Winds Simulation in the Area of Terra Nova Bay, Antarctica, Mon. Weather Rev., 122, 671–685, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1994)122<0671:DOATDM>2.0.CO;2, 1994.
Gallée, H., Peyaud, V., and Goodwin, I.: Simulation of the net snow accumulation along the Wilkes Land transect, Antarctica, with a regional climate model, Ann. Glaciol., 41, 17–22, https://doi.org/10.3189/172756405781813230, 2005.
Glaude, Q., Noel, B., Olesen, M., Van den Broeke, M., van de Berg, W. J., Mottram, R., Hansen, N., Delhasse, A., Amory, C., Kittel, C., Goelzer, H., and Fettweis, X.: A Factor Two Difference in 21st-Century Greenland Ice Sheet Surface Mass Balance Projections From Three Regional Climate Models Under a Strong Warming Scenario (SSP5-8.5), Geophys. Res. Lett., 51, e2024GL111902, https://doi.org/10.1029/2024GL111902, 2024.
Gobiet, A., Kotlarski, S., Beniston, M., Heinrich, G., Rajczak, J., and Stoffel, M.: 21st century climate change in the European Alps-A review, Sci. Total Environ., 493, 1138–1151, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.07.050, 2014.
Grailet, J.-F.: Inclusion of a new radiative transfer scheme in the MAR model and validation on Belgium, BSGLg, https://doi.org/10.25518/0770-7576.7031, 2023.
Hogan, R. J. and Bozzo, A.: A Flexible and Efficient Radiation Scheme for the ECMWF Model, J. Adv. Model. Ea. Syst., 10, 1990–2008, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018MS001364, 2018.
Isotta, F. A., Frei, C., Weilguni, V., Perčec Tadić, M., Lassègues, P., Rudolf, B., Pavan, V., Cacciamani, C., Antolini, G., Ratto, S. M., Munari, M., Micheletti, S., Bonati, V., Lussana, C., Ronchi, C., Panettieri, E., Marigo, G., and Vertačnik, G.: The climate of daily precipitation in the Alps: development and analysis of a high-resolution grid dataset from pan-Alpine rain-gauge data, Int. J. Climatol., 34, 1657–1675, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.3794, 2014.
Keil, P., Schmidt, H., Stevens, B., Byrne, M. P., Segura, H., and Putrasahan, D.: Tropical tropospheric warming pattern explained by shifts in convective heating in the Matsuno–Gill model, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 149, 2678–2695, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.4526, 2023.
Kotlarski, S., Bosshard, T., Lüthi, D., Pall, P., and Schär, C.: Elevation gradients of European climate change in the regional climate model COSMO-CLM, Climatic Change, 112, 189–215, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-011-0195-5, 2012.
Kotlarski, S., Lüthi, D., and Schär, C.: The elevation dependency of 21st century European climate change: an RCM ensemble perspective, Int. J. Climatol., 35, 3902–3920, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.4254, 2015.
Kotlarski, S., Szabó, P., Herrera, S., Räty, O., Keuler, K., Soares, P. M., Cardoso, R. M., Bosshard, T., Pagé, C., Boberg, F., Gutiérrez, J. M., Isotta, F. A., Jaczewski, A., Kreienkamp, F., Liniger, M. A., Lussana, C., and Pianko-Kluczyńska, K.: Observational uncertainty and regional climate model evaluation: A pan-European perspective, Int. J. Climatol., 39, 3730–3749, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.5249, 2019.
Kotlarski, S., Gobiet, A., Morin, S., Olefs, M., Rajczak, J., and Samacoïts, R.: 21st Century alpine climate change, Clim. Dyn., 60, 65–86, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-022-06303-3, 2023.
Kouassi, A., Assamoi, P., Bigot, S., Diawara, A., Schayes, G., Yoroba, F., and Kouassi, B.: Étude du climat Ouest-Africain à l'aide du modèle atmosphérique régional M.A.R., Climatologie, 7, 39–55, https://doi.org/10.4267/climatologie.445, 2010.
Kuhn, M. and Olefs, M.: Elevation-Dependent Climate Change in the European Alps, in: Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Climate Science, New York, NY, Oxford Academic, https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.762, 2020.
Lalande, M., Ménégoz, M., Krinner, G., Ottlé, C., and Cheruy, F.: Improving climate model skill over High Mountain Asia by adapting snow cover parameterization to complex-topography areas, The Cryosphere, 17, 5095–5130, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-5095-2023, 2023.
Li, B., Chen, Y., and Shi, X.: Does elevation dependent warming exist in high mountain Asia?, Environ. Res. Lett., 15, 024012, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ab6d7f, 2020.
Lüthi, S., Ban, N., Kotlarski, S., Steger, C. R., Jonas, T., and Schär, C.: Projections of Alpine Snow-Cover in a High-Resolution Climate Simulation, Atmosphere, 10, 463, https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos10080463, 2019.
Matiu, M., Petitta, M., Notarnicola, C., and Zebisch, M.: Evaluating Snow in EURO-CORDEX Regional Climate Models with Observations for the European Alps: Biases and Their Relationship to Orography, Temperature, and Precipitation Mismatches, Atmosphere, 11, 46, https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11010046, 2020.
Matiu, M., Napoli, A., Kotlarski, S., Zardi, D., Bellin, A., and Majone, B.: Elevation-dependent biases of raw and bias-adjusted EURO-CORDEX regional climate models in the European Alps, Clim. Dyn., 62, 9013–9030, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-024-07376-y, 2024.
Ménégoz, M., Gallée, H., and Jacobi, H. W.: Precipitation and snow cover in the Himalaya: from reanalysis to regional climate simulations, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 17, 3921–3936, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-17-3921-2013, 2013.
Ménégoz, M., Valla, E., Jourdain, N. C., Blanchet, J., Beaumet, J., Wilhelm, B., Gallée, H., Fettweis, X., Morin, S., and Anquetin, S.: Contrasting seasonal changes in total and intense precipitation in the European Alps from 1903 to 2010, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 5355–5377, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-5355-2020, 2020.
Minder, J. R., Letcher, T. W., and Liu, C.: The Character and Causes of Elevation-Dependent Warming in High-Resolution Simulations of Rocky Mountain Climate Change, J. Clim., 31, 2093–2113, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-17-0321.1, 2018.
Morcrette, J.-J.: Radiation and cloud radiative properties in the European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts forecasting system, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 96, 9121–9132, https://doi.org/10.1029/89JD01597, 1991.
Morcrette, J.-J.: The Surface Downward Longwave Radiation in the ECMWF Forecast System, J. Clim., 15, 1875–1892, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(2002)015<1875:TSDLRI>2.0.CO;2, 2002.
Nabat, P., Somot, S., Boé, J., Corre, L., Katragkou, E., Li, S., Mallet, M., van Meijgaard, E., Pavlidis, V., Pietikäinen, J.-P., Sørland, S., and Solmon, F.: Multi-Model Assessment of the Role of Anthropogenic Aerosols in Summertime Climate Change in Europe, Geophys. Res. Lett., 52, e2024GL112474, https://doi.org/10.1029/2024GL112474, 2025.
Naegeli, K., Neuhaus, C., Salberg, A.-B., Schwaizer, G., Weber, H., Wiesmann, A., Wunderle, S., and Nagler, T.: ESA Snow Climate Change Initiative (Snow_cci): Daily global Snow Cover Fraction-snow on ground (SCFG) from AVHRR (1982–2018), version 2.0, NERC EDS Centre for Environmental Data Analysis, https://doi.org/10.5285/3F034F4A08854EB59D58E1FA92D207B6, 2022.
Napoli, A., Desbiolles, F., Parodi, A., and Pasquero, C.: Aerosol indirect effects in complex-orography areas: a numerical study over the Great Alpine Region, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 3901–3909, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-3901-2022, 2022.
Napoli, A., Parodi, A., von Hardenberg, J., and Pasquero, C.: Altitudinal dependence of projected changes in occurrence of extreme events in the Great Alpine Region, Int. J. Climatol., 43, 5813–5829, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.8222, 2023.
Ohmura, A.: Enhanced temperature variability in high-altitude climate change, Theor. Appl. Climatol., 110, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-012-0687-x, 2012.
O'Neill, B. C., Tebaldi, C., van Vuuren, D. P., Eyring, V., Friedlingstein, P., Hurtt, G., Knutti, R., Kriegler, E., Lamarque, J.-F., Lowe, J., Meehl, G. A., Moss, R., Riahi, K., and Sanderson, B. M.: The Scenario Model Intercomparison Project (ScenarioMIP) for CMIP6, Geosci. Model Dev., 9, 3461–3482, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-9-3461-2016, 2016.
Palazzi, E., Filippi, L., and von Hardenberg, J.: Insights into elevation-dependent warming in the Tibetan Plateau-Himalayas from CMIP5 model simulations, Clim. Dyn., 48, 3991–4008, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-016-3316-z, 2017.
Palazzi, E., Mortarini, L., Terzago, S., and von Hardenberg, J.: Elevation-dependent warming in global climate model simulations at high spatial resolution, Clim. Dyn., 52, 2685–2702, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-018-4287-z, 2019.
Pepin, N., Bradley, R. S., Diaz, H. F., Baraer, M., Caceres, E. B., Forsythe, N., Fowler, H., Greenwood, G., Hashmi, M. Z., Liu, X. D., Miller, J. R., Ning, L., Ohmura, A., Palazzi, E., Rangwala, I., Schöner, W., Severskiy, I., Shahgedanova, M., Wang, M. B., Williamson, S. N., Yang, D. Q., and Mountain Research Initiative EDW Working Group: Elevation-dependent warming in mountain regions of the world, Nat. Clim. Change, 5, 424–430, https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2563, 2015.
Pepin, N., Apple, M., Knowles, J., Terzago, S., Arnone, E., Hänchen, L., Napoli, A., Potter, E., Steiner, J., Williamson, S. N., Ahrens, B., Dhar, T., Dimri, A. P., Palazzi, E., Rameshan, A., Salzmann, N., Shahgedanova, M., Vidal Jr, J. de D., and Zardi, D.: Elevation-dependent climate change in mountain environments, Nat. Rev. Earth Environ., 6, 772–788, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-025-00740-4, 2025.
Pepin, N. C. and Seidel, D. J.: A global comparison of surface and free-air temperatures at high elevations, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 110, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JD005047, 2005.
Pepin, N. C., Arnone, E., Gobiet, A., Haslinger, K., Kotlarski, S., Notarnicola, C., Palazzi, E., Seibert, P., Serafin, S., Schöner, W., Terzago, S., Thornton, J. M., Vuille, M., and Adler, C.: Climate Changes and Their Elevational Patterns in the Mountains of the World, Rev. Geophys., 60, e2020RG000730, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020RG000730, 2022.
Philipona, R.: Greenhouse warming and solar brightening in and around the Alps, Int. J. Climatol., 33, 1530–1537, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.3531, 2013.
Poli, P., Hersbach, H., Dee, D. P., Berrisford, P., Simmons, A. J., Vitart, F., Laloyaux, P., Tan, D. G. H., Peubey, C., Thépaut, J.-N., Trémolet, Y., Hólm, E. V., Bonavita, M., Isaksen, L., and Fisher, M.: ERA-20C: An Atmospheric Reanalysis of the Twentieth Century, J. Clim., 29, 4083–4097, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0556.1, 2016.
Prein, A. F. and Gobiet, A.: Impacts of uncertainties in European gridded precipitation observations on regional climate analysis, Int. J. Climatol., 37, 305–327, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.4706, 2017.
Rahbek, C., Borregaard, M. K., Colwell, R. K., Dalsgaard, B., Holt, B. G., Morueta-Holme, N., Nogues-Bravo, D., Whittaker, R. J., and Fjeldså, J.: Humboldt's enigma: What causes global patterns of mountain biodiversity?, Science, 365, 1108–1113, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aax0149, 2019.
Rangwala, I., Miller, J. R., Russell, G. L., and Xu, M.: Using a global climate model to evaluate the influences of water vapor, snow cover and atmospheric aerosol on warming in the Tibetan Plateau during the twenty-first century, Clim. Dyn., 34, 859–872, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-009-0564-1, 2010.
Romps, D. M.: Response of Tropical Precipitation to Global Warming, J. Atmos. Sci., 68, 123–138, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JAS3542.1, 2011.
Rottler, E., Kormann, C., Francke, T., and Bronstert, A.: Elevation-dependent warming in the Swiss Alps 1981–2017: Features, forcings and feedbacks, I. J. Climatol., 39, 2556–2568, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.5970, 2019.
Ruckstuhl, C., Philipona, R., Morland, J., and Ohmura, A.: Observed relationship between surface specific humidity, integrated water vapor, and longwave downward radiation at different altitudes, J. Geophys. Res., 112, 2006JD007850, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JD007850, 2007.
Sandu, I., van Niekerk, A., Shepherd, T. G., Vosper, S. B., Zadra, A., Bacmeister, J., Beljaars, A., Brown, A. R., Dörnbrack, A., McFarlane, N., Pithan, F., and Svensson, G.: Impacts of orography on large-scale atmospheric circulation, npj Clim. Atmos. Sci., 2, 10, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41612-019-0065-9, 2019.
Sobolowski, S., Somot, S., Fernandez, J., Evin, G., Brands, S., Maraun, D., Kotlarski, S., Jury, M., Benestad, R. E., Teichmann, C., Christensen, O. B., Bülow, K., Buonomo, E., Katragkou, E., Steger, C., Sørland, S., Nikulin, G., McSweeney, C., Dobler, A., Palmer, T., Wilcke, R., Boé, J., Brunner, L., Ribes, A., Qasmi, S., Nabat, P., Sevault, F., and Oudar, T.: GCM Selection and Ensemble Design: Best Practices and Recommendations from the EURO-CORDEX Community, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 106, E1834–E1850, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-23-0189.1, 2025.
Terzago, S., von Hardenberg, J., Palazzi, E., and Provenzale, A.: Snow water equivalent in the Alps as seen by gridded data sets, CMIP5 and CORDEX climate models, The Cryosphere, 11, 1625–1645, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1625-2017, 2017.
Thornton, J. M., Palazzi, E., Pepin, N. C., Cristofanelli, P., Essery, R., Kotlarski, S., Giuliani, G., Guigoz, Y., Kulonen, A., Pritchard, D., Li, X., Fowler, H. J., Randin, C. F., Shahgedanova, M., Steinbacher, M., Zebisch, M., and Adler, C.: Toward a definition of Essential Mountain Climate Variables, One Earth, 4, 805–827, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2021.05.005, 2021.
Toledo, O., Palazzi, E., Cely Toro, I. M., and Mortarini, L.: Comparison of elevation-dependent warming and its drivers in the tropical and subtropical Andes, Clim. Dyn., 58, 3057–3074, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-021-06081-4, 2022.
Tudoroiu, M., Eccel, E., Gioli, B., Gianelle, D., Schume, H., Genesio, L., and Miglietta, F.: Negative elevation-dependent warming trend in the Eastern Alps, Environ. Res. Lett., 11, 044021, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/11/4/044021, 2016.
Uppala, S. M., KÅllberg, P. W., Simmons, A. J., Andrae, U., Bechtold, V. D. C., Fiorino, M., Gibson, J. K., Haseler, J., Hernandez, A., Kelly, G. A., Li, X., Onogi, K., Saarinen, S., Sokka, N., Allan, R. P., Andersson, E., Arpe, K., Balmaseda, M. A., Beljaars, A. C. M., Berg, L. V. D., Bidlot, J., Bormann, N., Caires, S., Chevallier, F., Dethof, A., Dragosavac, M., Fisher, M., Fuentes, M., Hagemann, S., Hólm, E., Hoskins, B. J., Isaksen, L., Janssen, P. a. E. M., Jenne, R., Mcnally, A. P., Mahfouf, J.-F., Morcrette, J.-J., Rayner, N. A., Saunders, R. W., Simon, P., Sterl, A., Trenberth, K. E., Untch, A., Vasiljevic, D., Viterbo, P., and Woollen, J.: The ERA-40 re-analysis, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 131, 2961–3012, https://doi.org/10.1256/qj.04.176, 2005.
Vallis, G. K., Zurita-Gotor, P., Cairns, C., and Kidston, J.: Response of the large-scale structure of the atmosphere to global warming, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 141, 1479–1501, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.2456, 2015.
Viviroli, D., Kummu, M., Meybeck, M., Kallio, M., and Wada, Y.: Increasing dependence of lowland populations on mountain water resources, Nat. Sustain., 3, 917–928, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-020-0559-9, 2020.
Warscher, M., Wagner, S., Marke, T., Laux, P., Smiatek, G., Strasser, U., and Kunstmann, H.: A 5 km Resolution Regional Climate Simulation for Central Europe: Performance in High Mountain Areas and Seasonal, Regional and Elevation-Dependent Variations, Atmosphere, 10, 682, https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos10110682, 2019.
Wei, Y., Wang, Y., Lu, Z., Huang, Y., and Huang, F.: Upper Troposphere Warming Amplification over the Tibetan Plateau, J. Clim., 38, 5335–5348, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-24-0567.1, 2025.