Limits on the ejecta mass during the search for kilonovae associated with neutron star-black hole mergers: A case study of S230518h, GW230529, S230627c and the low-significance candidate S240422ed - 2025
Limits on the ejecta mass during the search for kilonovae associated with neutron star-black hole mergers: A case study of S230518h, GW230529, S230627c and the low-significance candidate S240422ed
Nuclear and High Energy Physics; astro-ph.HE; General Relativity and Quantum Cosmology
Abstract :
[en] Neutron star-black hole (NSBH) mergers, detectable via their gravitational-wave (GW) emission, are expected to produce kilonovae (KNe). Four NSBH candidates have been identified and followed-up by more than fifty instruments since the start of the fourth GW observing run (O4), in May 2023, up to July 2024; however, no confirmed associated KN has been detected. This study evaluates ejecta properties from multimessenger observations to understand the absence of detectable KN: we use GW public information and joint observations taken from 05.2023 to 07.2024 (LVK, ATLAS, DECam, GECKO, GOTO, GRANDMA, SAGUARO, TESS, WINTER, ZTF). First, our analysis on follow-up observation strategies shows that, on average, more than 50% of the simulated KNe associated with NSBH mergers reach their peak luminosity around one day after merger in the g, r, i- bands, which is not necessarily covered for each NSBH GW candidate. We also analyze the trade-off between observation efficiency and the intrinsic properties of the KN emission, to understand the impact on how these constraints affect our ability to detect the KN, and underlying ejecta properties for each GW candidate. In particular, we can only confirm the kilonova was not missed for 1% of the GW230529 and S230627c sky localization region, given the large sky localization error of GW230529 and the large distance for S230627c and, their respective KN faint luminosities. More constraining, for S230518h, we infer the dynamical ejecta and postmerger disk wind ejecta mdyn; mwind < 0.03M☉ and the viewing angle θ > 25°. Similarly, the nonastrophysical origin of S240422ed is likely further confirmed by the fact that we would have detected even a faint KN at the time and presumed distance of the S240422ed event candidate, within a minimum 45% credible region of the sky area, that can be larger depending on the KN scenario.
Disciplines :
Space science, astronomy & astrophysics
Author, co-author :
Pillas, Marion ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Unités de recherche interfacultaires > Space sciences, Technologies and Astrophysics Research (STAR) ; Université de la Côte d’Azur, ARTEMIS, Nice, France
Antier, S. ; Université de la Côte d’Azur, ARTEMIS, Nice, France ; IJCLab, Univ Paris-Saclay, CNRS, IN2P3, Orsay, France
Ackley, K.; Department of Physics, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
Ahumada, T. ; Division of Physics, Mathematics and Astronomy, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, United States
Akl, D.; American University of Sharjah, Physics Department, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
de Almeida, L. ; Laboratório Nacional de Astrofísica, Itajubá—, Brazil
Anand, S. ; Division of Physics, Mathematics and Astronomy, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, United States
Andrade, C.; School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, United States
Andreoni, I. ; Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, United States
Bostroem, K.A.; Steward Observatory, University of Arizona, Tucson, United States
Bulla, M.; Department of Physics and Earth Science, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy ; INFN, Sezione di Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy ; INAF, Osservatorio Astronomico d’Abruzzo, Teramo, Italy
Burns, E. ; Department of Physics and Astronomy, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, United States
Cabrera, T. ; McWilliams Center for Cosmology and Astrophysics, Department of Physics, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, United States
Chang, S. ; SNU Astronomy Research Center, Astronomy Program, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
Choi, H.; SNU Astronomy Research Center, Astronomy Program, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
O’Connor, B.; McWilliams Center for Cosmology and Astrophysics, Department of Physics, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, United States
Coughlin, M.W. ; School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, United States
Corradi, W. ; Laboratório Nacional de Astrofísica, Itajubá—, Brazil
Gibbs, A.R. ; Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, University of Arizona, Tucson, United States
Dietrich, T. ; Institut für Physik und Astronomie, Universität Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany ; Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics (Albert Einstein Institute), Potsdam, Germany
Freeberg, M. ; KNC, AAVSO, Hidden Valley Observatory(HVO), Colfax, Wisconsin, iTelescope, NMS, Mayhill, United States
Dyer, M. ; Astrophysics Research Cluster, School of Mathematical and Physical Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
Fausnaugh, M. ; Department of Physics, Kavli Institute for Astrophysics and Space Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, United States
Fong, Wen-fai ; Center for Interdisciplinary Exploration and Research in Astrophysics (CIERA), Department of Physics and Astronomy, Northwestern University, Evanston, United States
Foucart, F. ; Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of New Hampshire, Durham, United States
Frostig, D. ; Center for Astrophysics Harvard and Smithsonian, Cambridge, United States
Guessoum, N. ; American University of Sharjah, Physics Department, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
Gupta, Vaidehi ; School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, United States
Hello, P. ; IJCLab, Univ Paris-Saclay, CNRS, IN2P3, Orsay, France
Hosseinzadeh, G. ; Steward Observatory, University of Arizona, Tucson, United States ; Department of Astronomy Astrophysics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, United States
Hu, L.; McWilliams Center for Cosmology and Astrophysics, Department of Physics, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, United States
Hussenot-Desenonges, T. ; IJCLab, Univ Paris-Saclay, CNRS, IN2P3, Orsay, France
Im, M. ; SNU Astronomy Research Center, Astronomy Program, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
Jayaraman, R. ; Department of Physics, Kavli Institute for Astrophysics and Space Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, United States
Jeong, M.; SNU Astronomy Research Center, Astronomy Program, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
Karambelkar, V. ; Cahill Center for Astrophysics, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, United States
Kasliwal, M. ; Cahill Center for Astrophysics, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, United States
Kim, S.; SNU Astronomy Research Center, Astronomy Program, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
Kilpatrick, C.D.; Center for Interdisciplinary Exploration and Research in Astrophysics (CIERA), Northwestern University, Evanston, United States
Kochiashvili, N. ; E. Kharadze Georgian National Astrophysical Observatory, Adigeni, Georgia
Karpov, S. ; FZU, Institute of Physics, the Czech Academy of Sciences, Praha, Czech Republic
Kunnumkai, K. ; McWilliams Center for Cosmology and Astrophysics, Department of Physics, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, United States
Lamoureux, M. ; Centre for Cosmology, Particle Physics and Phenomenology, CP3, Université Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
Lee, C.U. ; Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute, Daejeon, South Korea
Lourie, N.; Department of Physics, Kavli Institute for Astrophysics and Space Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, United States
Lyman, J. ; Department of Physics, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
Mašek, M. ; FZU, Institute of Physics, the Czech Academy of Sciences, Praha, Czech Republic
Mo, G. ; Department of Physics, Kavli Institute for Astrophysics and Space Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, United States ; MIT LIGO Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, United States
Molham, M.; National Research Institute of Astronomy and Geophysics (NRIAG), Cairo, Egypt
Nitz, A.H. ; Syracuse University, Syracuse, United States
Nicholl, M. ; Astrophysics Research Centre, School of Mathematics and Physics, Queens University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom
Navarete, F. ; SOAR Telescope/NSF’s NOIRLab, La Serena, Chile
Noysena, K. ; National Astronomical Research Institute of Thailand (Public Organization), Chiang Mai, Thailand
O’Neill, D.; Department of Physics, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
Paek, G.S.H. ; SNU Astronomy Research Center, Astronomy Program, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea ; Institute for Astronomy, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, United States
Palmese, A. ; McWilliams Center for Cosmology and Astrophysics, Department of Physics, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, United States
Poggiani, R. ; Dipartimento di Fisica, Universita di Pisa, Pisa, Italy
Pradier, T.; Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, IPHC UMR 7178, Strasbourg, France
Pyshna, O. ; Astronomical Observatory Taras Shevshenko National University of Kyiv, Kyiv, Ukraine
Rajabov, Y. ; Ulugh Beg Astronomical Institute, Uzbekistan Academy of Sciences, Tashkent, Uzbekistan
Rastinejad, J.C.; Center for Interdisciplinary Exploration and Research in Astrophysics (CIERA), Department of Physics and Astronomy, Northwestern University, Evanston, United States
Sand, D.J. ; Steward Observatory, University of Arizona, Tucson, United States
Shawhan, P. ; University of Maryland, College Park, United States
Shrestha, M.; Steward Observatory, University of Arizona, Tucson, United States
Simcoe, R. ; Department of Physics, Kavli Institute for Astrophysics and Space Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, United States
Smartt, S.J. ; Astrophysics Research Centre, School of Mathematics and Physics, Queens University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom ; Astrophysics, Department of Physics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
Steeghs, D. ; Department of Physics, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
Stein, R.; Department of Astronomy, University of Maryland, College Park, United States ; Joint Space-Science Institute, University of Maryland, College Park, United States ; Astrophysics Science Division, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, United States
Stevance, H.F.; Astrophysics, Department of Physics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
Takey, A. ; National Research Institute of Astronomy and Geophysics (NRIAG), Cairo, Egypt
Sun, M.; National Astronomical Research Institute of Thailand (Public Organization), Chiang Mai, Thailand
Toivonen, A. ; School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, United States
Turpin, D. ; Université Paris-Saclay, Université Paris Cité, CEA, CNRS, AIM, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
Ulaczyk, K. ; Department of Physics, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
Wold, A.; IPAC, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, United States
Wouters, T. ; Institute for Gravitational and Subatomic Physics (GRASP), Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands ; Nikhef, Amsterdam, Netherlands
Limits on the ejecta mass during the search for kilonovae associated with neutron star-black hole mergers: A case study of S230518h, GW230529, S230627c and the low-significance candidate S240422ed
NSF - National Science Foundation MSMT - Ministerstvo školství, mládeže a tělovýchovy České republiky EC - European Commission CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique F.R.S.-FNRS - Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique NWO - Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek CNPq - Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico FAPEMIG - Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos DOE - United States. Department of Energy NASA - National Aeronautics and Space Administration STFC - Science and Technology Facilities Council Royal Society John Templeton Foundation ERC - European Research Council INSU - Institut National des Sciences de l'Univers CEA - Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique et aux Énergies Alternatives CNES - Centre National d'Études Spatiales NRF - National Research Foundation of Korea Heising-Simons Foundation UKSA - UK Space Agency IISN - Institut interuniversitaire des sciences nucléaires
Funding text :
Kyung Hee Astronomical Observatory, CBNUO, the SNU Astronomical Observatory, and KMTNet for performing the GECKO observations of several targets. This research has made use of the KMTNet system operated by the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute (KASI) at three host sites CTIO in Chile, SAAO in South Africa, and SSO in Australia. Data transfer from the host site to K. A. S. I. was supported by the Korea Research Environment Open NETwork (KREONET). D. Frostig\u2019s contribution to this material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Award No. AST-2401779. Time-domain research by the University of Arizona team and D. J. S. is supported by National Science Foundation (NSF) Grants No. 2108032, No. 2308181, No. 2407566, and No. 2432036 and the Heising-Simons Foundation under Grant No. 2020-1864. This work was supported by Shota Rustaveli National Science Foundation of Georgia (SRNSFG) Grant No. FR-24-7713. M. P. and S. A. thanks the MOCpy\u2019s team [143] and especially Manon Marchand and Francois-Xavier PINEAU for close communication to produce the skymap observations of the article. M. N. is supported by the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union\u2019s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (Grant Agreement No. 948381) and by UK Space Agency Grant No. ST/Y000692/1. I. A. is supported by NASA Award No. 24-ADAP24-0159 and NSF Award No. 2407924. The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the NSF, STFC, INFN and CNRS for provision of computational resources. This material is based upon work supported by NSF\u2019s LIGO Laboratory which is a major facility fully funded by the National Science Foundation. K. A. Bostroem acknowledges support from LSST-DA Catalyst Fellowship.A. H. N. acknowledges support from NSF Grant No. PHY-2309240. M. W.C, C. A. and V. G. acknowledge support from the National Science Foundation with Grants No. PHY-2308862 and No. PHY-2117997. The authors of M. M. and S. K. thanks to the following grants of the Ministry of Education of the Czech Republic LM2023032 and LM2023047, as well as EU/MEYS grants CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_013/0001403, CZ.02.1.01/ 0.0/0.0/18_046/0016007, CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/ 16_019/ 0000754, and CZ.02.01.01/00/22_008/0004632. S. A. thanks the CNRS MITI and TAROT Collaboration for providing support for this work. M. L. is a Postdoctoral Researcher of the Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique\u2014 M. P. acknowledges support from FNRS and IISN 4.4503. T. W. acknowledges funding through NWO under Grant No. OCENW.XL21.XL21.038. The work of F. N. is supported by NOIRLab, which is managed by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. A. P. is supported by NSF Grant No. 2308193. Based on observations at Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory, NSF\u2019s NOIRLab (NOIRLab Prop. ID 2023B-851374, PI: Andreoni and Palmese), which is managed by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. W. C. acknowledges the support from CNPq\u2014BRICS 440142/ 2022-9, FAPEMIG APQ 02493-22 and FNDCT/FINEP/ REF 0180/22. KAO-NRIAG team acknowledges financial support from the Egyptian Science, Technology and Innovation Funding Authority (STDF) under Grant No. 45779. F. F. gratefully acknowledges support from the Department of Energy, Office of Science, Office of Nuclear Physics, under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231 and from NASA through Grant No. 80NSSC22K0719. H. F. S. is supported by Schmidt Sciences. S. J. S. acknowledges funding from STFC Grants No. ST/Y001605/1, No. ST/X006506/1, No. ST/T000198/1, a Royal Society Research Professorship and the Hintze Charitable Foundation. We thank I. M. G. and K. C. for the discussion regarding the ejecta mass computation. S. A. and M. P. thank M. K. for contributions on expertise and data related to ZTF for this work. This publication was made possible through the support of Grant No. 62192 from the John Templeton Foundation to LSST-DA. We acknowledge funding from the Daimler and Benz Foundation for the project \u201CNUMANJI\u201D and from the European Union (ERC, SMArt, 101076369). Neither the European Union nor the granting authority can be held responsible for them. The Programme National des Hautes \u00C9nergies (PNHE) of CNRS/INSU cofunded by CNRS/IN2P3, CNRS/INP, CEA and CNES supported this work. N. K. thanks V. Ayvazyan and R. Inasaridze for contribution of AbAO observations during O4: results are published in GCNs. S. A. thanks les Makes Observatory, NOWT, ASTEP, UBAI-T60, OST-CDK, OPD-60, NOWT, TRT, Kilonova-catcher, FRAM, KAO, AbAO-T70, F. R\u00FCnger, P. Thierry, A. Klotz, A. Ishankar, R. Hainich, H. B. Eggesntein, P. Vignes, P. Jacquiery, T. Guillot, V. Deloupy, O. Burkhonov., E. Gurbanov, S. Ehgamberdiev, T. Sadibekova, I. Tosta e Melo, X. F. Wang, J. Zhu, X. Zeng, A. Iskandar, S. Pormente, P. Gokuldass, L. Abe, K. Agabi, J. Dibasso, for useful coordination and observation of the O4 GW candidates during O4, results are published in GCNs (GCN 34130, GCN 36284, 36299, 36326). M. M. and S. K. thank M. Prouza for providing useful contributions to the observation of FRAM of EM counterpart follow-up during the O4 campaign. S. A. thanks IJCLAB and the Skyportal team for the set up of a great system of ICARE, especially M. Jouvin, J. Peloton, N. Leroy, T. Du Laz. A. Takey thank E. G. Elhosseiny and M. Abdelkareem for providing useful contributions to the observation of KAO of EM counterpart of candidates during the O4 campaign. W. C., F. N., and T. de Almeida thank L. Fraga, N. Sasaki for their contribution to the observations of OPD-60 of EM counterpart of candidates during the O4 campaign. S. A. and M. P. thank Y. Tillayev, O. Burkhonov for their contribution to the observations of UBAI EM counterpart of candidates during the O4 campaign. S. A. and M. P. thank O. Sokoliuk for discussion to improve the quality of the paper. M. I., G. S. H. P., M. J., S. W. C., H. C., C. U. L., and S. K. acknowledge the support from the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) Grants No. 2020R1A2C3011091, and No. 2021M3F7A1084525, funded by the Korea government (MSIT). This work has made use of data from the Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (ATLAS) project. The Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (ATLAS) project is primarily funded to search for near Earth asteroids through NASA Grants No. NN12AR55G, No. 80NSSC18K0284, and No. 80NSSC18K1575; byproducts of the NEO search include images and catalogs from the survey area. This work was partially funded by Kepler/K2 Grant No. J1944/80NSSC19K0112 and No. HST GO-15889, and STFC Grants No. ST/ T000198/1 and No. ST/S006109/1. The ATLAS science products have been made possible through the contributions of the University of Hawaii Institute for Astronomy, the Queen\u2019s University Belfast, the University of Oxford, the Space Telescope Science Institute, the South African Astronomical Observatory, and The Millennium Institute of Astrophysics (MAS), Chile. We thank the observers, especially Joh-Na Yoon, Hongjae Moon, Sumin Lee, Changgon Kim, Soojong Pak, and Jin-Guk Seo, of the
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