Big data; Biodiversity decline; Biodiversity monitoring; Citizen science; Knowledge gaps; Online tool; Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics; Nature and Landscape Conservation
Abstract :
[en] Understanding and reversing biodiversity decline in the Anthropocene requires robust data on species taxonomic identity, distribution, ecology, and population trends. Data deficits hinder biodiversity assessments and conservation, and despite major advances over the past few decades, our understanding of bee diversity, decline and distribution in Europe is still hampered by such data shortfalls. Using a unique digital dataset of wild bee occurrence and ecology, we identify seven critical shortfalls which are an absence of knowledge on geographic distributions, (functional) trait variation, population dynamics, evolutionary relationships, biotic interactions, species identity, and tolerance to abiotic conditions. We describe “BeeFall,” an interactive online Shiny app tool, which visualizes these shortfalls and highlights missing data. We also define a new impediment, the Keartonian Impediment, which addresses an absence of high-quality in situ photos and illustrations with diagnostic characteristics and directly affects the outlined shortfalls. Shortfalls are highly correlated at both the provincial and national scales, identifying key areas in Europe where knowledge gaps can be filled. This work provides an important first step towards the long-term goal to mobilize and aggregate European wild bee data into a multi-scale, easy access, shareable, and updatable database which can inform research, practice, and policy actions for the conservation of wild bees.
Disciplines :
Entomology & pest control
Author, co-author :
Marshall, Leon; Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, Netherlands ; Agroecology Lab, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
Leclercq, Nicolas ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département GxABT > Biodiversité, Ecosystème et Paysage (BEP) ; Agroecology Lab, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
Carvalheiro, Luísa G.; Departamento de Ecologia, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, Brazil ; Center of Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
LM, NL and NJV were supported by the FNRS/FWO joint program “EOS – Excellence of Science” for the project “CliPS: Climate change and its effects on Pollination Services (project 30947854 )”. LM was also supported by F.R.S.-FNRS fellowships (Chargé de recherches) and the “BeeConnected” project (VI.Veni.222.141) which is financed by the Dutch Research Council (NWO). NL is additionally supported by “ Fonds David et Alice Van Buuren ” and “ Fondation Jaumotte-Demoulin ”. LGC is supported by the Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development , CNPq ( 307625/2021-4 ). SGP was supported by the Safeguard project (H2020 Grant Agreement 101003476 ). Wild bee collection data was obtained from: the European Commission Framework Programme (FP) 7 via the Status and Trends of European Pollinators (STEP) collaborative project (grant no. 244090, www.STEP-project.net ). Organisations involved in managing and sharing this data included the Bees, Wasps and Ants Recording Society (BWARS, www.bwars.com ), the Banque de Données Fauniques Gembloux-Mons (BDFGM, www.atlashymenoptera.net ), the Swedish Species Information Centre (SSIC, www.artdatabanken.se ), the European Invertebrate Survey—Nederland (EIS-NL, www.eis-nederland.nl ), the Centre Suisse de Cartographie de la Faune (CSCF, www.cscf.ch ), the National Biodiversity Data Centre (NBDC, www.biodiversityireland.ie ), the Finnish Museum of Natural History (FMNH, www.luomus.fi ), the Norwegian Species information Centre (NSIC, www.biodiversity.no ), the Global Biodiversity Information Facility ( GBIF.org, 2023 , www.gbif.org ). We would like to thank all those involved with the incredibly important and fundamental work of collecting, managing, curating, digitizing, correcting, and sharing bee collection data from Europe that makes this work possible. For a full list of all contributors to the full databases please see the appropriate wild bee family pages at http://www.atlashymenoptera.net/europeanbees.aspx , the GBIF link and the publications/websites of the other data sources. We would also like to thank Sara Reverté Saiz for her assistance in adapting the present study to the latest update of the European wild bee checklist. We are also grateful to all the iNaturalist users who collect and validate wild bee data, including the three most active collectors (as of Jan 2024) in Europe ‘dierkesp’, Henk Wallays (‘henkwallays2’), and Michael Knapp (‘waldgeist’) and the three most active validators (as of Jan 2024) John S. Ascher (‘johnascher’), NABU Nordvorpommern (‘nabu-nvp’), and ‘frank007’. Finally, we would like to thank everyone who uploads data to any of the publicly available sources used in this study.LM, NL and NJV were supported by the FNRS/FWO joint program “EOS – Excellence of Science” for the project “CliPS: Climate change and its effects on Pollination Services (project 30947854)”. LM was also supported by F.R.S.-FNRS fellowships (Chargé de recherches) and the “BeeConnected” project (VI.Veni.222.141) which is financed by the Dutch Research Council (NWO). NL is additionally supported by “Fonds David et Alice Van Buuren” and “Fondation Jaumotte-Demoulin”. LGC is supported by the Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development, CNPq (307625/2021-4). SGP was supported by the Safeguard project (H2020 Grant Agreement 101003476). Wild bee collection data was obtained from: the European Commission Framework Programme (FP) 7 via the Status and Trends of European Pollinators (STEP) collaborative project (grant no. 244090, www.STEP-project.net). Organisations involved in managing and sharing this data included the Bees, Wasps and Ants Recording Society (BWARS, www.bwars.com), the Banque de Données Fauniques Gembloux-Mons (BDFGM, www.atlashymenoptera.net), the Swedish Species Information Centre (SSIC, www.artdatabanken.se), the European Invertebrate Survey—Nederland (EIS-NL, www.eis-nederland.nl), the Centre Suisse de Cartographie de la Faune (CSCF, www.cscf.ch), the National Biodiversity Data Centre (NBDC, www.biodiversityireland.ie), the Finnish Museum of Natural History (FMNH, www.luomus.fi), the Norwegian Species information Centre (NSIC, www.biodiversity.no), the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF.org, 2023, www.gbif.org). We would like to thank all those involved with the incredibly important and fundamental work of collecting, managing, curating, digitizing, correcting, and sharing bee collection data from Europe that makes this work possible. For a full list of all contributors to the full databases please see the appropriate wild bee family pages at http://www.atlashymenoptera.net/europeanbees.aspx, the GBIF link and the publications/websites of the other data sources. We would also like to thank Sara Reverté Saiz for her assistance in adapting the present study to the latest update of the European wild bee checklist. We are also grateful to all the iNaturalist users who collect and validate wild bee data, including the three most active collectors (as of Jan 2024) in Europe ‘dierkesp’, Henk Wallays (‘henkwallays2’), and Michael Knapp (‘waldgeist’) and the three most active validators (as of Jan 2024) John S. Ascher (‘johnascher’), NABU Nordvorpommern (‘nabu-nvp’), and ‘frank007’. Finally, we would like to thank everyone who uploads data to any of the publicly available sources used in this study.
Aguirre-Gutierrez, J., et al. Functional traits help to explain half-century long shifts in pollinator distributions. Sci. Rep., 6, 2016, 13.
Albert, C.H., Thuiller, W., Yoccoz, N.G., Douzet, R., Aubert, S., Lavorel, S., A multi-trait approach reveals the structure and the relative importance of intra-vs. interspecific variability in plant traits. Funct. Ecol. 24:6 (2010), 1192–1201.
Almeida, E.A., Bossert, S., Danforth, B.N., Porto, D.S., Freitas, F.V., Davis, C.C., Orr, M.C., The Evolutionary History of Bees in Time and Space. 2023, Current Biology.
Ascher, J.S., Pickering, J., Discover life bee species guide and world checklist (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Anthophila). Draft 55. Website. Accessed Oct 2022, 2020.
Ascher, J., Marshall, L., Meiners, J., Yanega, D., Vereecken, N., Heterogeneity in large-scale databases and the role of climate change as a driver of bumble bee decline. Science, 2020 (E-Letter, 2 May 2020).
Balfour, Nicholas J., Castellanos, Maria Clara, Goulson, Dave, Philippides, Andrew, Johnson, Chris, DoPI: the database of pollinator interactions. Ecology, 103(11), 2022, e3801 (Accessed November 2023).
Bartomeus, I., Stavert, J.R., Ward, D., Aguado, O., Historical collections as a tool for assessing the global pollination crisis. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B, 374, 2019, 20170389.
Bartomeus, I., et al. Base de datos de abejas ibéricas. Ecosistemas, 31, 2022, 2380.
Bevis, J., The Keartons: Inventing Nature Photography. 2016, Uniformbooks.
Bossert, S., et al. Phylogeny, biogeography and diversification of the mining bee family Andrenidae. Syst. Entomol. 47 (2022), 283–302.
Callaghan, C.T., et al. The benefits of contributing to the citizen science platform iNaturalist as an identifier. PLoS Biol., 20, 2022, e3001843.
Cardoso, P., Leather, S.R., Predicting a global insect apocalypse. Insect Conserv. Divers. 12 (2019), 263–267.
Cardoso, P., Erwin, T.L., Borges, P.A., New, T.R., The seven impediments in invertebrate conservation and how to overcome them. Biol. Conserv. 144 (2011), 2647–2655.
Chang, W., et al. shiny: WebApplication Framework for R. 2022.
Chao, A., et al. Measuring temporal change in alpha diversity: A framework integrating taxonomic, phylogenetic and functional diversity and the iNEXT. 3D standardization. Methods Ecol. Evol. 12:10 (2021), 1926–1940.
Chase, M.H., Fraterrigo, J.M., Harmon-Threatt, A., Bee functional traits and their relationship to pollination services depend on many factors: A meta-regression analysis. Insect Conserv. Divers. 16 (2023), 313–323.
Chesshire, P.R., et al. Completeness analysis for over 3000 United States bee species identifies persistent data gap. Ecography, 2023, e06584.
Costello, M.J., et al. Strategies for the sustainability of online open-access biodiversity databases. Biol. Conserv. 173 (2014), 155–165.
Dafni, A., Pollination Ecology: A Practical Approach. 1992, Oxford University Press.
Danforth, B.N., Conway, L., Ji, S., Phylogeny of eusocial Lasioglossum reveals multiple losses of eusociality within a primitively eusocial clade of bees (Hymenoptera: Halictidae). Syst. Biol. 52 (2003), 23–36.
Danforth, B.N., Cardinal, S., Praz, C., Almeida, E.A.B., Michez, D., The impact of molecular data on our understanding of bee phylogeny and evolution. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 58 (2013), 57–78.
De Palma, A., et al. Ecological traits affect the sensitivity of bees to land-use pressures in European agricultural landscapes. J. Appl. Ecol. 52 (2015), 1567–1577.
Díaz, S.M., et al. The Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Summary for Policy Makers. 2019.
Diniz-Filho, J.A.F., De Marco Júnior, P., Hawkins, B.A., Defying the curse of ignorance: perspectives in insect macroecology and conservation biogeography. Insect Conserv. Divers. 3 (2010), 172–179.
Dorey, J.B., Fischer, E.E., Chesshire, P.R., et al. A globally synthesised and flagged bee occurrence dataset and cleaning workflow. Sci. Data, 10(1), 2023, 747.
Eardley, C.D., Gikungu, M., Schwarz, M.P., Bee conservation in Sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar: diversity, status, and threats. Apidologie 40:3 (2009), 355–366.
Elith, J., Leathwick, J.R., Species distribution models: ecological explanation and prediction across space and time. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 40 (2009), 677–697.
Faria, L.R.R., Pie, M.R., Salles, F.F., Soares, E.D.G., The Haeckelian shortfall or the tale of the missing semaphoronts. J. Zool. Syst. Evol. Res. 59:2 (2021), 359–369.
Freitas, B.M., Imperatriz-Fonseca, V.L., Medina, L.M., Kleinert, A.D.M.P., Galetto, L., Nates-Parra, G., Quezada-Euán, J.J.G., Diversity, threats, and conservation of native bees in the Neotropics. Apidologie 40:3 (2009), 332–346.
Gaston, K.J., Taxonomy of taxonomists. Nature 356 (1992), 281–282.
GBIF.org, GBIF Occurrence Download. 28 November 2023, 10.15468/dl.umg2ny.
Geldmann, J., et al. What determines spatial bias in citizen science? Exploring four recording schemes with different proficiency requirements. Divers. Distrib. 22 (2016), 1139–1149.
Ghisbain, G., Rosa, P., Bogusch, P., Flaminio, S., Le Divelec, R., Dorchin, A., Müller, A., The New Annotated Checklist of the Wild Bees of Europe (Hymenoptera: Anthophila). Zootaxa. 2023.
Gombault, C., Morison, N., Guilbaud, L., Vaissière, B.E., FlorAbeilles: Base de données en ligne sur les interactions plantes-abeilles en France métropolitaine. Inrae, Unité Abeilles et Environnement, 2018, France, Avignon http://www.florabeilles.org (Accessed November 2023).
Grab, H., et al. Agriculturally dominated landscapes reduce bee phylogenetic diversity and pollination services. Science 363 (2019), 282–284.
Hedtke, S.M., Patiny, S., Danforth, B.N., The bee tree of life: a supermatrix approach to apoid phylogeny and biogeography. BMC Evol. Biol. 13:1 (2013), 1–13.
Henríquez-Piskulich, P., Hugall, A.F., Stuart-Fox, D., A supermatrix phylogeny of the world's bees (Hymenoptera: Anthophila). bioRxiv, 2023.06.16.545281, 2023, 10.1101/2023.06.16.545281.
Higgs, N.D., Attrill, M.J., Biases in biodiversity: wide-ranging species are discovered first in the deep sea. Front. Mar. Sci., 2, 2015, 61.
Hochkirch, A., et al. A strategy for the next decade to address data deficiency in neglected biodiversity. Conserv. Biol. 35 (2021), 502–509.
Hoiss, B., Krauss, J., Potts, S.G., Roberts, S., Steffan-Dewenter, I., Altitude acts as an environmental filter on phylogenetic composition, traits, and diversity in bee communities. Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 279 (2012), 4447–4456.
Hortal, J., Jiménez-Valverde, A., Gómez, J.F., Lobo, J.M., Baselga, A., Historical bias in biodiversity inventories affects the observed environmental niche of the species. Oikos 117 (2008), 847–858.
Hortal, J., et al. Seven shortfalls that beset large-scale knowledge of biodiversity. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 46 (2015), 523–549.
Hughes, A.C., et al. Sampling biases shape our view of the natural world. Ecography 44 (2021), 1259–1269.
Isaac, N.J., Pocock, M.J., Bias and information in biological records. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 115 (2015), 522–531.
IUCN, IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria: Version 3.1. (IUCN Species Survival Commission). 2001.
Johnson, K.R., Owens, I.F.P., THE GLOBAL COLLECTION GROUP, A global approach for natural history museum collections. Science 379 (2023), 1192–1194.
Kamp, J., Oppel, S., Heldbjerg, H., Nyegaard, T., Donald, P.F., Unstructured citizen science data fail to detect long-term population declines of common birds in Denmark. Divers. Distrib. 22 (2016), 1024–1035.
Kass, J.M., et al. The global distribution of known and undiscovered ant biodiversity. Sci. Adv., 8, 2022, 9908.
Kendall, L.K., Rader, R., Gagic, V., Cariveau, D.P., Albrecht, M., Baldock, K.C.R., Freitas, B.M., Hall, M., Holzschuh, A., Molina, F.P., Morten, J.M., Pereira, J.S., Portman, Z.M., Roberts, S.P.M., Rodriguez, J., Russo, L., Sutter, L., Vereecken, N.J., Bartomeus, I., Pollinator size and its consequences: robust estimates of body size in pollinating insects. Ecol. Evol. 9 (2018), 1702–1714.
Kooi, C.J. van der, Ollerton, J., The origins of flowering plants and pollinators. Science 368 (2020), 1306–1308.
Kuhlmann, M., Patterns of diversity, endemism, and distribution of bees (Insecta: Hymenoptera: Anthophila) in southern Africa. S. Afr. J. Bot. 75:4 (2009), 726–738.
Lavorel, S., Garnier, E., Predicting changes in community composition and ecosystem functioning from plant traits: revisiting the Holy Grail. Funct. Ecol. 16:5 (2002), 545–556.
Leclercq, N., et al. European bee diversity: taxonomic and phylogenetic patterns. J. Biogeogr. 50:7 (2023), 1244–1256.
Lecocq, T., et al. Patterns of genetic and reproductive traits differentiation in mainland vs. Corsican populations of bumblebees. PLoS One, 8, 2013, 65642.
Lhomme, P., Michez, D., Christmann, S., Scheuchl, E., El Abdouni, I., Hamroud, L., Dathe, H.H., The wild bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea) of Morocco. Zootaxa 4892:1 (2020), 1–159.
Litman, J.R., Danforth, B.N., Eardley, C.D., Praz, C.J., Why do leafcutter bees cut leaves? New insights into the early evolution of bees. Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 278 (2011), 3593–3600.
Lomolino, M.V., Conservation Biogeography. Frontiers of Biogeography: New Directions in the Geography of Nature. 293, 2004, 293.
Lopes-Lima, M., et al. Major shortfalls impairing knowledge and conservation of freshwater molluscs. Hydrobiologia 848 (2021), 2831–2867.
López-Aliste, M., et al. Wild bees of Chile: a database on taxonomy, sociality, and ecology. Ecology, 102, 2021, e03377.
Marshall, L., et al. Testing projected wild bee distributions in agricultural habitats: predictive power depends on species traits and habitat type. Ecol. Evol. 5 (2015), 4426–4436.
Marshall, L., et al. The interplay of climate and land use change affects the distribution of EU bumblebees. Glob. Chang. Biol. 24 (2018), 101–116.
Marshall, L., Ascher, J.S., Villagra, C., Beaugendre, A., Herrera, V., Henríquez-Piskulich, P., Vereecken, N.J., Chilean bee diversity: contrasting patterns of species and phylogenetic turnover along a large-scale ecological gradient. Ecosphere, 14(5), 2023, e4535.
Martinet, B., et al. Global effects of extreme temperatures on wild bumblebees. Conserv. Biol. 35 (2021), 1507–1518.
McGill, B.J., Enquist, B.J., Weiher, E., Westoby, M., Rebuilding community ecology from functional traits. Trends Ecol. Evol. 21 (2006), 178–185.
Memmott, J., The structure of a plant-pollinator food web. Ecol. Lett. 2 (1999), 276–280.
Meunier, J.-Y., et al. Apoidea of the collections of Lyon, Aix-en-Provence, Marseille and Toulon Museums of Natural History (France). Biodivers. Data J., 11, 2023, e99650.
Meyer, C., Kreft, H., Guralnick, R., Jetz, W., Global priorities for an effective information basis of biodiversity distributions. Nat. Commun. 6 (2015), 1–8.
Murray, E.A., Bossert, S., Danforth, B.N., Pollinivory and the diversification dynamics of bees. Biol. Lett., 14, 2018, 20180530.
Nelson, G., Ellis, S., The history and impact of digitization and digital data mobilization on biodiversity research. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B, 374, 2019, 20170391.
Nieto, A., et al. European Red List of Bees. 2014, Publication Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.
Noriega, J.A., et al. Research trends in ecosystem services provided by insects. Basic Appl. Ecol. 26 (2018), 8–23.
Oliveira, U., Paglia, A.P., Brescovit, A.D., de Carvalho, C.J., Silva, D.P., Rezende, D.T., Ascher, J.S., et al. The strong influence of collection bias on biodiversity knowledge shortfalls of Brazilian terrestrial biodiversity. Divers. Distrib. 22:12 (2016), 1232–1244.
Ollerton, J., Winfree, R., Tarrant, S., How many flowering plants are pollinated by animals?. Oikos 120 (2011), 321–326.
O.R.B.I.T, ORBIT project - taxonomic resources for european bees. https://orbitproject.wordpress.com/about-the-project/, 2022.
Orr, M.C., et al. Global patterns and drivers of bee distribution. Curr. Biol. 31 (2021), 451–458.e4.
Orr, M.C., et al. Taxonomy must engage with new technologies and evolve to face future challenges. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 5 (2021), 3–4.
Pauly, A., Devalez, J., Sonet, G., Nagy, Z.T., Boevé, J.-L., DNA barcoding and male genital morphology reveal five new cryptic species in the West Palearctic bee Seladonia smaragdula (Vachal, 1895. Halictidae). Zootaxa 4034 (2015), 257–290.
Pereira, F.W., Goncalves, R.B., Ramos, K.D.S., Bee surveys in Brazil in the last six decades: a review and scientometrics. Apidologie 52:6 (2021), 1152–1168.
Pocock, M.J., Roy, H.E., Preston, C.D., Roy, D.B., The biological records centre: a pioneer of citizen science. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 115 (2015), 475–493.
Poelen, J.H., Simons, J.D., Mungall, C.J., Global biotic interactions: an open infrastructure to share and analyze species-interaction datasets. Eco. Inform. 24 (2014), 148–159 (Accessed November 2023).
Poisot, T., et al. Global knowledge gaps in species interaction networks data. J. Biogeogr. 48 (2021), 1552–1563.
Potts, S.G., et al. Developing European conservation and mitigation tools for pollination services: approaches of the STEP (Status and Trends of European Pollinators) project. J. Apic. Res. 50 (2011), 152–164.
Potts, S.G., et al. The Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Science-policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services on Pollinators, Pollination and Food Production. 2016.
Potts, S.G., et al. Proposal for an EU pollinator monitoring scheme, EUR 30416 EN. 23859–1. Publications Office of the European Union, 2021.
R Core Team, R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. 2022, R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
Rasmont, P., Devalez, J., Pauly, A., Michez, D., Radchenko, V.G., Addition to the checklist of IUCN European wild bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea). Annales de la Société Entomologique de France (NS), vol. 53, 2017, Taylor & Francis, 17–32.
Ratnasingham, S., Hebert, P.D.B., BOLD: the barcode of life data system. Mol. Ecol. Notes 7 (2007), 355–364 (Accessed November 2023).
Reverté, S., et al. National Records of 3000 European Bee and Hoverfly Species: A Contribution to Pollinator Conservation. 2023, In press, Insect Conservation and Diversity.
Riddle, B.R., Ladle, R.J., Lourie, S.A., Whittaker, R.J., Basic biogeography: estimating biodiversity and mapping nature. Conservation biogeography (eds. Ladle, R. J. & Whittaker, R. J.), 47–92, 2011, Blackwell Publishing.
Rocha-Ortega, M., Rodriguez, P., Córdoba-Aguilar, A., Geographical, temporal and taxonomic biases in insect GBIF data on biodiversity and extinction. Ecol. Entomol. 46 (2021), 718–728.
Salmon, R.A., Rammell, S., Emeny, M.T., Hartley, S., Citizens, scientists, and enablers: a tripartite model for citizen science projects. Diversity, 13, 2021, 309.
Seltmann, K.C., Allen, J., Brown, B.V., Carper, A., Engel, M.S., Franz, N., Gilbert, E., Grinter, C., Gonzalez, V.H., Horsley, P., Lee, S., Maier, C., Miko, I., Morris, P., Oboyski, P., Pierce, N.E., Poelen, J., Scott, V.L., Smith, M., Talamas, E.J., Tsutsui, N.D., Tucker, E., Announcing Big-Bee: an initiative to promote understanding of bees through image and trait digitization. Biodivers. Inf. Sci. Stand., 5, 2021, e74037, 10.3897/biss.5.74037.
Seppänen, J., Väliverronen, E., Visualizing biodiversity: the role of photographs in environmental discourse. Sci. Cult. 12 (2003), 59–85.
Siefert, A., Violle, C., Chalmandrier, L., Albert, C.H., Taudiere, A., Fajardo, A., de L. Dantas, V., et al. A global meta-analysis of the relative extent of intraspecific trait variation in plant communities. Ecol. Lett. 18:12 (2015), 1406–1419.
Spiesman, B.J., et al. Assessing the potential for deep learning and computer vision to identify bumble bee species from images. Sci. Rep., 11, 2021, 7580.
Suarez, A.V., Tsutsui, N.D., The value of museum collections for research and society. BioScience 54 (2004), 66–74.
Tshibungu, A., et al. The Megachilidae (Hymenoptera, Apoidea, Apiformes) of the Democratic Republic of Congo curated at the Royal Museum for Central Africa (RMCA, Belgium). Zootaxa 5392:1 (2023), 1–103.
Tylianakis, J.M., Didham, R.K., Bascompte, J., Wardle, D.A., Global change and species interactions in terrestrial ecosystems. Ecol. Lett. 11 (2008), 1351–1363.
Vereecken, N.J., et al. Five years of citizen science and standardised field surveys in an informal urban green space reveal a threatened Eden for wild bees in Brussels, Belgium. Insect Conserv. Divers. 14 (2021), 868–876.
Vereecken, N.J., et al. Insect biomass is not a consistent proxy for biodiversity metrics in wild bees. Ecol. Indic., 121, 2021, 107132.
Vissault, S., Gravel, D., Poisot, T.E., Mangal: An Open Infrastructure for Ecological Interactions. 2019, Biodiversity Information Science and Standards.
Warrit, N., et al. Opportunities and challenges in Asian bee research and conservation. Biol. Conserv., 285, 2023, 110173.
Weekers, T., et al. Ecological, environmental, and management data indicate apple production is driven by wild bee diversity and management practices. Ecol. Indic., 139, 2022, 108880.
Wetzel, F.T., et al. Unlocking biodiversity data: prioritization and filling the gaps in biodiversity observation data in Europe. Biol. Conserv. 221 (2018), 78–85.
Williams, P.H., Novel splitting/lumping index reflects the history of species concepts applied to bumblebees (Insecta: Apidae). Zool. J. Linnean Soc. 196:2 (2022), 704–719.
Winfree, R., Aguilar, R., Vázquez, D.P., LeBuhn, G., Aizen, M.A., A meta-analysis of bees’ responses to anthropogenic disturbance. Ecology 90 (2009), 2068–2076.
Wood, T.J., Cross, I., Baldock, D.W., Updates to the bee fauna of Portugal with the description of three new Iberian Andrena species (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Anthophila). Zootaxa, 4790, 2020 (zootaxa.4790.2.1).
Zizka, A., Silvestro, D., Andermann, T., Azevedo, J., Duarte Ritter, C., Edler, D., Farooq, H., Herdean, A., Ariza, M., Scharn, R., Svantesson, S., Wengström, N., Zizka, V., Antonelli, A., CoordinateCleaner: standardized cleaning of occurrence records from biological collection databases. Methods Ecol. Evol. 10:5 (2019), 744–751.
