cannibalisme; densité; dynamique des populations; reproduction; ressources alimentaires
Abstract :
[fr] Le cannibalisme est issu d’une déformation linguistique de la terminologie Arawak (Amérindiens des Antilles) caribal qui signifie courageux. Christophe Colomb l’emploie pour désigner les Indiens des Caraïbes réputés pour être des mangeurs d’hommes. Le cannibalisme est largement répandu au sein du règne animal. Sa pratique au sein de l’espèce humaine remonte au Paléolithique et persiste encore dans certaines sociétés actuelles, bien qu’elle ne répond pas exclusivement à des besoins alimentaires comme chez les autres espèces animales. Au regard de sa large distribution, il y a lieu de s’interroger sur les causes, origines et avantages évolutifs de ce comportement au sein du règne animal. Le cannibalisme est induit soit par des facteurs écologiques directement liés à une insuffisance des ressources alimentaires, à de fortes densités d’individus et à une hétérogénéité structurale de la population, soit par des facteurs sociaux comme des besoins de reproduction, ou des contraintes de soins parentaux face à une progéniture trop nombreuse. Les avantages de ce comportement sont les gains nutritionnel et énergétique, les gains de territoire pour vivre et se développer. Par contre, les inconvénients résident dans la réduction des effectifs et de la variabilité génétique de la population, ainsi que dans la possibilité de transmission de parasites, virus et de maladies.
Disciplines :
Agriculture & agronomy Entomology & pest control Environmental sciences & ecology
Author, co-author :
Alabi, Taofic
Patiny, Sébastien
Verheggen, François ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech > Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech
AFP, 2002. Ces hommes qui cherchent à se faire manger sur le web, http://tf1.lci.fr/infos/high-tech/2002/0,972870,00- ces-hommes-qui-cherchent-faire-manger-sur-web-.html, (03/07/2009).
Alabi T., Michaud J.P., Arnaud L. & Haubruge É., 2008. A comparative study of cannibalism and predation in seven species of flour beetles. Ecol. Entomol., 33, 716-726.
Alexander R., 1974. The evolution of social behaviour. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 5, 325-383.
Alpers M., 1979. Epidemiology and ecology of Kuru. In: Prusiner S.B. & Hadlow W.J., eds. Slow transmissible diseases of the nervous system, 1. New York, USA: Academic Press.
Amstrong J., 1964. The population dynamics of the planarian, Dugesia tigrina. Ecology, 45, 361-365.
Andrade M.C., 1996. Sexual selection for male sacrifice in the Australian redback spider. Science, 271, 70-72.
Arens W., 1979. The man-eating myth. New York, USA: Oxford University Press.
Bahn P., 1996. The Cambridge illustrated history of archaeology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Bailey K. & Polis G., 1987. An experimental analysis of optimal and central place foraging by the harvester ant, Pogonomyrmex californicus. Oecologia, 72, 440-448.
Bakker K., 1969. Selection for the rate of growth and its influence on competitive ability of larvae of Drosophila melanogaster. Neth. J. Zool., 19, 541-595.
Banks C., 1956. Observations on the behavior and mortality in Coccinellidae before dispersal from the egg shell. Proc. R. Entomol. Soc. London (A), 31, 56-60.
Banks C., 1968. Cannibalism and predation by aphids. Nature, 218, 491.
Basedow T., 1996. Contribution to the nutritional and population ecology of Murex trunculus (L. 1767) (Gastropoda, Muricidae), derived from findings at the north coast of Crete (Eastern Mediterranean), with remarks on two species of Naticidae (Gastropoda). Zool. Beitr., 37(2), 157-170.
Baur B., 1990. Possible benefits of egg cannibalism in the land snail Arianta arbustorum. Funct. Ecol., 4, 679-684.
Baur B., 1992. Cannibalism in gasteropods. In: Elgar M. & Crespi J., eds. Cannibalism: ecology and evolution among diverse taxa. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 102-127.
Begon M., 1996. Ecology. 3rd edition. Cambridge, MA, USA: Blackwell Science Inc.
Begon M., Townsend C.R. & Harper J.C., 2006. Ecology: from individuals to ecosystems. 4th edition. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing.
Blum M.S. & Hilker M., 2002. Chemical protection of insect eggs. In: Hilker M. & Meiners T., eds. Chemoecology of insect eggs and egg deposition. Berlin: Blackwell.
Boots M., 1998. Cannibalism and the stage-dependent transmission of a viral pathogen of the Indian meal moth, Plodia interpunctella. Ecol. Entomol., 23, 118-122.
Boots M., 2000. Density-independent resource limitation and transmission of an insect pathogen. Oecologia, 124, 172-175.
Bower S.M., Meyer G.R. & Boutillier J.A., 1996. Stained prawn disease (SPD) of Pandalus platyceros in British Columbia, Canada, caused by a rickettsial infection. Dis. Aquat. Org., 24, 41-54.
Braband A., 1995. Intra-cohort cannibalism among larval stages of perch (Perca fluviatilis). Ecol. Freshwater Fish, 4, 70-76.
Braid J., 1981. Incidence of cannibalism among striped bass fry in an intensive culture system. Prog. Fish-Cult., 43, 210-212.
Chapman J.W. et al., 1999a. Age-related cannibalism and horizontal transmission of a nuclear polyhedrosis virus in larval Spodoptera frugiperda. Ecol. Entomol., 24, 268-275.
Chapman J.W. et al., 1999b. Fitness consequences of cannibalism in the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda. Behav. Ecol., 10, 298-303.
Chapman J.W. et al., 2000. Does cannibalism in Spodoptera frugiperda reduce the risk of predation? Behav. Ecol. Sociobiology, 48, 321-327.
Claessen D., de Roos A.M. & Persson L., 2003. Population dynamic theory of size dependent cannibalism. Proc. R. Soc. London (B), 271, 333-340.
Collins J. & Cheek J., 1983. Effect of food and density on development of typical and cannibalistic salamander larvae in Ambystoma tigrinum nebulosum. Am. Zool., 23, 77-84.
Cottrell C., 1984. Aphytophagy in butterflies: its relationship to myrmecophily. Zool. J. Linn. Soc., 79, 1-57.
Crowell H., 1973. Laboratory study of calcium requirements of the brown garden snail, Helix aspertsa Müller. Proc. Malacol. Soc. Lond., 40, 491-503.
Crowley P.H., Dillon D.M., Johnson D.M. & Watson C.N., 1987. Intraspecific interference among larvae in a semivoltine dragonfly population. Oecologia, 71, 447-456.
Crump M.L., 1983. Opportunistic cannibalism by amphibian larvae in temporary aquatic environments. Am. Nat., 121, 281-289.
Crump M.L., 1991. Choice of oviposition site and egg load assessment by a treefrog. Herpetologica, 47, 308-315.
Crump M.L., 1992. Cannibalism in amphibians. In: Elgar M. & Crespi B., eds. Cannibalism: ecology and evolution among diverse taxa. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 256-276.
Dayton G.H. & Wapo S.D., 2002. Cannibalistic behaviour in Scaphiopus couchii: more evidence for larval anuran oophagy. J. Herpetol., 36, 531-532.
De Buron I. & Maillard C., 1987. Experimental transfer by ichthyophagy and cannibalism of adult helminths, parasite of fishes. Ann. Parasit. Hum. Comp., 62, 188-191.
DeVries Th. & Lakes-Harlan R., 2007. Prenatal cannibalism in an insect. Naturwissenschaften, 94, 477-482.
Dhandapani N., Jayaraj S. & Rabindra R.J., 1993. Cannibalism on nuclear polyhedrosis-virus infected larvae by Heliothis armigera (Hubn) and its effect on viral infection. Insect Sci. Appl., 14, 427-430.
Dietemann V. & Peeters C., 2000. Queen influence on the shift from trophic to reproductive eggs laid by workers of the ponerine ant Pachycondyla apicalis. Insectes Sociaux, 47, 223-228.
Dietl G.P., 2003. First report of cannibalism in Triplofusus giganteus (Gastropoda: Fasciolariidae). Bull. Mar. Sci., 73, 757-761.
Dong Q. & Polis G., 1992. The dynamics of cannibalism populations: a foraging perspective. In: Elgar M. & Crespi J., eds. Cannibalism: ecology and evolution among diverse taxa. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 13-37.
Duelli P., 1981. Is larval cannibalism in lacewings (Chrysopa carnea) adaptative (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae)? Res. Popul. Ecol., 23, 193-209.
Ebensperger L., 1998. Strategies and counterstrategies to infanticide in mammals. Biol. Rev., 73, 321-346.
Elgar M., 1990. Evolutionary compromise between a few large and many small eggs: comparative evidence in teleost fish. Oikos, 59, 283-287.
Elgar M. & Crespi J., 1992. Cannibalism: ecology and evolution among diverse taxa. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Elwood R., 1985. The inhibition of infanticide and the onset of paternal care in male mice Mus musculus. J. Comp. Psychol., 99, 457-467.
Elwood R., 1992. Pup-cannibalism in rodents: causes and consequences. In: Elgar M. & Crespi J., eds. Cannibalism: ecology and evolution among diverse taxa. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 299-322.
Fessahaye Y., Rezk M., Bovenhuis H. & Komen H., 2004. Size dependent cannibalism in juvenile Nile tilapia. In: Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture, ICLARM Conference, Manila, Philippines, 230-238.
Fitzgerald G.J. & Whoriskey F.G., 1985. The effects of interspecific interactions upon male reproductive success in two sympatric sticklebacks, Gasterosteus aculeatus and G. wheatlandi. Behaviour, 93, 112-126.
Fitzgerald G., Guderley H. & Picard P., 1989. Hidden reproductive costs in the three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus). J. Exp. Bot., 48, 295-300.
Forbes L.B., 2000. The occurrence and ecology of Trichinella spp. in marine mammals. Vet. Parasitol., 93, 321-334.
Forster L., 1992. The stereotyped behaviour of sexual cannibalism in Latrodectus hasselti Thorell (Araneae: Theridiidae), the Australian redback spider. Austral. J. Zool., 40, 1-11.
Fox L., 1975. Cannibalism in natural populations. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 6, 87-106.
Freud S., 1913. Totem and taboo: resemblances between the mental lives of savages and neurotics. New York, USA: Moffat, Yard and Company.
Gajduzek D.C. & Zigas V., 1959. Kuru: clinical, pathological and epidemiological study of an acute progressive degenerative disease of the central nervous system among natives of the Eastern Highlands of New Guinea. Am. J. Med., 26, 442-469.
Gajduzek D.C. & Gibbs C.J., 1975. Familial and sporadic chronic neurological degenerative disorders transmitted from man to primates. Adv. Neurol., 10, 291-317.
Geden C.J., Long S.J., Rutz D.A. & Becnel J.J., 1995. Nosema disease of the parasitoid Muscidifurax raptor (Hymenoptera, Pteromalidae)-prevalence, patterns of transmission, management, and impact. Biol. Control, 5, 607-614.
Gilbert J., 1973. The adaptative significance of polymorphism in the rotifer Asplanchna. Hamps in males and females. Oecologia, 13, 135-146.
Gilgenkrantz S., 2004. Nos ancêtres les cannibales. Med. Sci., 20(1), 14-16.
Giray T., Luyten Y.A., MacPherson M. & Stevens L., 2001. Physiological bases of genetic differences in cannibalism behavior of the confused flour beetle Tribolium confusum. Evolution, 55(4), 797-806.
Gordeev M.I. & Sibataev A.K., 1995. Age-dependent selection and ability for cannibalism in malaria mosquito larvae with different karyotypes. Genetika, 31, 939-946.
Gould S.J., 1984. Only his wings remained. Nat. Hist., 93, 10-18.
Hahn E.C. et al., 1997. Mechanisms of transmission of Aujeszky's disease virus originating from feral swine in the USA. Vet. Microbiol., 55, 123-130.
Hammar J., 2000. Cannibals and parasites: conflicting regulators of bimodality in high latitude Arctic char, Salvelinus alpinus. Oikos, 88, 33-47.
Hanbury R.D., Doby P.B., Miller H.O. & Murrell K.D., 1986. Trichinosis in a herd of swine-cannibalism as a Le cannibalisme dans les populations animals major mode of transmission. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc., 188, 1155-1159.
Hausfater G. & Hrdy S., 1984. Infanticide: comparative and evolutionary perspectives. New York, USA: Aldine Publishing Company.
Hecht T. & Pienaar G.A., 1993. A review of cannibalism and its implications in fish larviculture. J. World Aquacult. Soc., 24, 246-259.
Heinze J., Stengl B. & Sledge M.F., 2002. Worker rank, reproductive status and cuticular hydrocarbon signature in the ant, Pachycondyla cf. inversa. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiology, 52, 59-65.
Hiraiwa-Hasegawa M., 1992. Cannibalism among non-human primates. In: Elgar M. & Crespi J., eds. Cannibalism: ecology and evolution among diverse taxa. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 323-338.
Ho F. & Dawson P., 1966. Egg cannibalism by Tribolium larvae. Ecology, 47, 318-322.
Hoffman E. & Pfennig D., 1999. Proximate causes of cannibalistic polyphenism in larval tiger salamanders. Ecology, 80, 1076-1080.
Hseu J.R., 2002. Effects of size difference and stocking density on cannibalism rate of juvenile grouper, Epinephelus coioides. Fish. Sci., 68, 1384-1386.
Hughes R., 1985. Predatory behavior of Natica unifasciata feeding intertidally on gastropods. J. Molluscan Stud., 51, 331-335.
Jasienski M. & Jasienska G., 1988. Parental correlates of the variability in body mass at hatching in Arctia caja larvae (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae). Entomol. Genet., 13, 87-93.
Kalueff A. et al., 2006. Behavioural anomalies in mice evoked by ''Tokyo'' disruption of the Vitamin D receptor gene. Neurosci. Res., 54, 254-260.
Kiesecker J. & Blaustein A., 1999. Pathogen reverses competition between larval amphibians. Ecology, 80, 2442-2448.
Klomp H., 1964. Intraspecific competition and the regulation of insect numbers. Annu. Rev. Entomol., 9, 17-40.
Knell R. J., Begon M. & Thompson D.J., 1996. Transmission dynamics of Bacillus thuringiensis infecting Plodia interpunctella: a test of the mass action assumption with an insect pathogen. Proc. R. Soc. B, 263, 75-81.
Knell R. J., Begon M. & Thompson D.J., 1998. Transmission of Plodia interpunctella granulosis virus does not conform to the mass action model. J. Anim. Ecol., 67, 592-599.
Kohmatsu Y., Nakano S. & Yamamura N., 2001. Effects of head shape variation on growth, metamorphosis and survivorship in larval salamanders (Hynobius retardatus). Ecol. Res., 16, 73-83.
Koie M., 2000. Life cycle and seasonal dynamics of Cucullanus cirratus of Miller, 1777 (Nematoda, Ascaridida, Seuratoidea, Cucullanidae) in Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua L. Can. J. Zool., 78, 182-190.
Kurihara Y. & Okamoto K., 1987. Cannibalism in a grapsid crab, Hemigrapsus penicillatus. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 41, 123-127.
Kusano T., Kusano H. & Miyashita K., 1985. Size-related cannibalism among larval Hynobius nebulosus. Copeia, 1985, 472-476.
Lannoo M. & Bachmann M., 1984. Aspects of cannibalistic morphs in a population of Ambystoma tigrinum larvae. Am. Midl. Nat., 112, 103-109.
Lannoo M.J., Townsend D.S. & Wassersug R.J., 1987. Larval life in the leaves: arboreal tadpole types, with special attention to the morphology, ecology, and behavior of the oophagous Osteopilus brunneus (Hylidae) larva. Fieldiana Zool., 38, 1-31.
Lindenbaum S., 1979. Kuru sorcery: disease and dangers in the New Guinean highlands. Mountain Few, CA, USA: Mayfield Publishing Company.
Lindenbaum S., 2004. Thinking about cannibalism. Ann. Rev. Anthropol., 33, 475-498.
Lipinski M. & Linkowski T., 1988. Food of the squid Ommastrephes bartramii (Lesueur, 1821) from the South- West Atlantic Ocean. S. Afr. J. Mar. Sci., 6, 43-46.
MacArthur R.H., 1958. Population ecology of some warblers of the northeastern coniferous forest. Ecology, 39, 599-619.
MacArthur R.H. & Pinaka E.R., 1966. On optimal use of a patchy environment. Am. Nat., 100, 603-609.
MacNeil C. et al., 2003. Parasite transmission and cannibalism in an amphipod (Crustacea). Int. J. Parasitol., 33, 795-798.
Malagon F., Castillo L. & Tapia J.L., 1994. Experimental transmission of murine malaria by cannibalism on mice infected by Plasmodium berghei yoelii. Acta Protozool., 33, 191-193.
Manica A., 2002. Filial cannibalism in teleost fish. Biol. Rev., 77, 261-277.
Manica A., 2003. The effect of brood size and age on partial filial cannibalism. J. Fish Biol., 63, 37-47.
Matuschka F.R. & Bannert B., 1989. Recognition of cyclic transmission of Sarcocystis stehlinii n-sp in the Gran Canarian giant lizard. J. Parasitol., 75, 383-387.
Maxwell M.R., 1998. Lifetime mating opportunities and male mating behaviour in sexually cannibalistic praying mantids. Anim. Behav., 55, 1011-1028.
Maynard Smith J., 1978. The evolution of sex. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
McCormick A.L. & Nickol B.B., 2004. Postcyclic transmission and its effect on the distribution of Paulisentis missouriensis (Acanthocephala) in the definitive host Semotilus atromaculatus. J. Parasitol., 90, 103-107.
McFarland D., 2001. Le comportement animal. Psychobiologie, éthologie et évolution. Paris; Louvain- la-Neuve, Belgique: De Boeck Université.
Mecom J., 1972. Feeding habits of Trichoptera in a mountain stream. Oikos, 23, 401-407.
Michaud J.P., 2003. A comparative study of larval cannibalism in three species of ladybird. Ecol. Entomol., 28(1), 92-101.
Nishihara A., 1996. Effects of density on growth of head size in larvae of the salamander Hynobius retardatus. Copeia, 1996, 478-483.
Nishihara-Takahashi A., 1999. Faster growth of head size of prefeeding larvae in a cannibalistic population of the salamander Hynobius retardatus. Zool. Sci., 16, 303-307.
Noirot E., 1972. Ultrasounds and maternal behaviour insmall rodents. Dev. Psychobiol., 5, 371-387.
Numelin M., 1989. Cannibalism in waterstriders (Heteroptera: Gerrridae): is there kin recognition? Oikos, 56, 87-90.
Ohdachi S., 1994. Growth, metamorphosis and gape-limited cannibalism and predation on tadpoles in larvae of salamanders Hynobius retardatus. Zool. Sci., 11, 127-131.
Omar A.H., 1995. Cannibalism and predation behaviour of the blowfly, Chrysomyia albiceps (Wiedemann) larvae (Diptera: Calliphoridae). J. Egypt Soc. Parasitol., 25, 729-743.
Orr B., Murdoch W. & Bence J., 1990. Population regulation, convergence and cannibalism inNotonecta (hemiptera). Ecology, 71, 68-82.
Osawa N., 1989. Sibling and non sibling cannibalism by larvae of lady beetle Harmonia axyridis Pallas (Coteoptera: Coccinellidae) in the field. Res. Popul. Ecol., 31, 153-160.
Osawa N., 2002. Sex-dependent effects of sibling cannibalism on life history traits in the ladybird beetle Harmonia axyridis (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Biol. J. Linn. Soc., 76, 349-360.
Patou-Mathis M., 2002. Comportements de subsistence durant le dernier interglaciaire en Europe. In: Tuffreau A. & Roebroek W., eds. Le dernier interglaciaire et les occupations humaines du Paléolithique Moyen. Oxford, UK: Oxbow, 53-65.
Patou-Mathis M., 2006. Neanderthal. Une autre humanité. Paris: Édition Perrin.
Pearman P.B., Garner T.W.J., Straub M. & Greber U.F., 2004. Response of the Italian agile frog (Rana latastei) to a Ranavirus, frog virus 3: a model for viral emergence in naive populations. J. Wildl. Dis., 40, 660-669.
Persson L. et al., 2003. Gigantic cannibals driving whole lake trophic cascades. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci., 100, 4035-4039.
Pfennig D.W., 1990. The adaptive significance of an environmentally cued developmental switch in an anuran tadpole. Oecologia, 85, 101-107.
Pfennig D., Leob L. & Collins J., 1991. Pathogens as a factor limiting the spread of cannibalism among tiger salamanders. Oecologia, 88, 161-166.
Pfennig D. & Collins J., 1993. Kinship affects morphogenesis in cannibalistic salamanders. Nature, 362, 836-838.
Pfennig D., Ho S. & Hoffman E., 1998. Pathogen transmission as a selective force against cannibalism. Anim. Behav., 55, 1255-1261.
Pfennig D.W., 2000. Effect of predator-prey phylogenetic similarity on fitness consequences of predation: a trade- off between nutrition and disease. Am. Nat., 155, 335-345.
Polis G., 1981. The evolution and dynamics of intraspecific predation. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 12, 125-151.
Polis G. & Myers C., 1985. A survey of intraspecific predation among reptiles and amphibians. J. Herpetol., 19, 99-107.
Pierce B., Mitton J., Jacobson L. & Rose F., 1983. Head shape and size in cannibal and noncannibal larvae of the tiger salamander from West Texas. Copeia, 1983, 1006-1012.
Pottier J., 2007. Rights violations, rumour, and rhetoric: making sense of cannibalism in Mambasa, Ituri (Democratic Republic of Congo). J. R. Anthropol. Inst., 13(4), 825-843.
Pozio E., 2000. Factors affecting the flow among domestic, synanthropic and sylvatic cycles of Trichinella spp. Vet. Parasitol., 93, 241-262.
Prusiner S.B., Cochran S.P. & Alpers M.P., 1985. Transmission of scrapie in hamsters. J. Infect. Dis., 152, 971-978.
Qureshi T. et al., 2000. Transmission of Mycobacterium bovis from experimentally infected ferrets to non- infected ferrets (Mustela furo). N. Z. Vet. J., 48, 99-104.
Raven P.H., Johnson G.B., Losos J.B. & Singer S.S., 2007. Biologie. Bruxelles: Édition De Boeck Université.
Remy J., 2003. Actes de cannibalisme au Congo: rapport de la mission des Nations d'Observation des Nations Unies (Monuc.Org). http://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/5298, (03/07/09).
Ricklefs R.E. & Miller G.L., 2005. Écologie. Paris; Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgique: De Boeck Université.
Rinkevich B. & Weissman I., 1987. The fate of Botryllus (Ascidiacea) larvae cosettled with parental colonies: beneficial or deleterious consequences. Biol. Bull., 173, 474-488.
Robinson M.H. & Robinson B., 1980. Comparative studies of the courtship and mating behaviour of tropical araneid spiders. Honolulu, Hawaii: Bishop Museum, 40-47.
Roff D.A., 1992. The evolution of life histories. New York, USA: Routledge, Chapman and Hall, Inc.
Rose F.L. & Armentrout D., 1976. Adaptive strategies of Ambystoma tigrinum Green inhabiting the Llano Estacado of West Texas. J. Anim. Ecol., 45, 713-729.
Rüger M., Fröba J. & Foitzik S., 2008. Larval cannibalism and worker-induced separation of larvae in Hypoponera ants: a case of conflict over caste determination. Insect Soc., 55, 12-21.
Sadler L. & Elgar M., 1994. Cannibalism among amphibian larvae: a case of good taste. Trends Ecol. Evol., 9, 5-6.
Schaub G.A., Boker C.A., Jensen C. & Reduth D., 1989. Cannibalism and coprophagy are modes of transmission of Blastocrithidia triatomae (Trypanosomatidae) between triatomines. J. Protozool., 36, 171-175.
Sherman P.W., 1981. Reproductiven competition and infanticide in Belding's ground squirrels and other animals. In: Alexander R.D. & Tinkle D.W., eds. Natural selection and social behaviour. New York, USA: Chiron Press, 311-331.
Sokoloff A., 1974. The biology of Tribolium. II. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
Stearns S.C., 1992. The evolution of life histories. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Stevens L., 1989. The genetics and evolution of cannibalism in flour beetles, genus Tribolium spp. Evolution, 43, 169-179.
Svenning M.A. & Borgstrom R., 2005. Cannibalism in Arctic charr: do all individuals have the same propensity to be cannibals? J. Fish Biol., 66, 957-965.
Taylor J.D., 1970. Feeding habits of predatory gastropods in a Tertiary (Eocene) molluscan assemblage from the Paris basin. Palaeontology, 13, 254-260.
Torossian C., 1968. Les caractères de la ponte des ouvrières de la fourmi Dolichoderus quadripunctatus. Insect Soc., 15, 51-72.
Torossian C., 1979. Importance quantitative des œufs abortifs d'ouvrières dans le bilan trophique de la colonie de la fourmi Dolichoderus quadripunctatus. Insect Soc., 26, 295-299.
Trinkaus E., 1978. Functional implications of the Kaprina Neanderthal lower limb remains. In: Malez M., ed. Krainiski Pracovjek i evolucija Hominida. Zagreb, Croatia: J.A.ZU., 155-192.
Via S., 1998. Cannibalism facilitates the use of the novel environment in the flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum. Heredity, 82, 267-275.
Wakahara M., 1995. Cannibalism and the resulting dimorphism in larvae of a salamander Hynobius retardatus, inhabited in Hokkaido. Jpn Zool. Sci., 12, 467-473.
Wakano J.Y., Kohmatsu Y. & Yamamura N., 2002. Evolutionary dynamics of frequency-dependent growth strategy in cannibalistic amphibians. Evol. Ecol. Res., 4, 719-736.
Wakano J.Y., 2003. Drastic growth effect may explain sympatric cannibalistic polymorphism. J. Theor. Biol., 226, 69-77.
Warburg M., Degani G. & Warburg L., 1979. Growth and population structure of Salamandra salamandra (L.) larvae in different limnological conditions. Hydrobiologia, 64, 147-55.
White T.D., 1986. Cutmarks on the bodo cranium: a case of prehistoric defleshing. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol., 69, 503-509.
White T.D., 1992. Prehistoric cannibalism at Mancos 5MTUMR-2346. Princeton, NJ, USA: Princeton University Press.
Whoriskey F. & Fitzgerald G., 1985. Sex, cannibalism and sticklebacks. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 18, 15-18.
Williams T. & Hernández O., 2006. Costs of cannibalism in the presence of an iridovirus pathogen of Spodoptera frugiperda. Ecol. Entomol., 31, 106-113.
Wood J.T. & Goodwin O.K., 1954. Observations on the abundance, food, and feeding behaviour of the newt, Notophthalmus viridescens viridescens (Rafinesque), in Virginia. J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc., 70, 27-30.
Wourms J., 1977. Reproduction and development in chondrichthyan fishes. Am. Zool., 17, 379-410.
Wu J.L. et al., 2001. Effects of shrimp density on transmission of penaeid acute viremia in Penaeus japonicus by cannibalism and the waterborne route. Dis. Aquat. Org., 47, 129-135.
Young C., 1988. Ascidian cannibalism correlates with larval behavior and adult distribution. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol., 117, 9-26.
