An Investigation of Microclimatic Influences on Pedestrian Perception and Walking Experience in Contrasting Urban Fabrics: The Case of the Old Town and the Lower City of Béjaïa, Algeria
[en] This study explores the impact of microclimatic variations on thermal perception and walking experience in Béjaïa, Algeria, focusing on two contrasting urban areas: the compact historic medina and the modern lower city. A mixed-method approach combined microclimatic measurements (Ta, Ts, Va, RH) with subjective evaluations from 70 participants. After urban morphological analysis, walking itineraries were designed and studied through accompanied walks. Participants reported their thermal sensations and walking comfort via questionnaires and mental maps, while environmental data were simultaneously collected (21–28 July 2022). Results show that transitions between urban fabrics significantly affect thermal sensation and walking thermal comfort (WTC). Strong correlations were observed between surface temperature (Ts) and sky view factor (SVF), and between ASV and WTC (Kendall’s τᵦ = 0.79, 95% CI [0.70, 0.88]). Beyond physical factors, perceptual variables like vegetation (OR = 1.50), maintenance (OR = 1.40), and views (OR = 1.30) significantly increased WTC, while fatigue (OR = 0.70) and safety concerns (OR = 0.80) reduced it. The findings highlight strong contrasts between the two areas and support planning strategies emphasizing vegetation, spatial optimization, and the integration of perceptual thermal factors in urban design.
Disciplines :
Architecture
Author, co-author :
Mansouri, Yacine ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Urban and Environmental Engineering
Matallah, Mohamed Elhadi ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département ArGEnCo > Techniques de construction des bâtiments ; Civil Engineering and Hydraulics, Sustainable Development and Environment (LARGHYDE) Laboratory, University of Biskra, Biskra 07000, Algeria
Attar, Abdelghani ; Laboratory of Construction, Engineering, and Architecture (LGCA), Faculty of Technology, University of Bejaia, Bejaia 6000, Algeria
Mahar, Waqas Ahmed ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Urban and Environmental Engineering ; Department of Architecture, School of Art, Design and Architecture (SADA), National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
Attia, Shady ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département ArGEnCo > Techniques de construction des bâtiments
Language :
English
Title :
An Investigation of Microclimatic Influences on Pedestrian Perception and Walking Experience in Contrasting Urban Fabrics: The Case of the Old Town and the Lower City of Béjaïa, Algeria
Publication date :
26 June 2025
Journal title :
Urban Science
eISSN :
2413-8851
Publisher :
MDPI
Volume :
9
Issue :
7
Pages :
243
Peer reviewed :
Peer Reviewed verified by ORBi
Development Goals :
11. Sustainable cities and communities 3. Good health and well-being
Distefano N. Leonardi S. Fostering Urban Walking: Strategies Focused on Pedestrian Satisfaction Sustainability 2023 15 16649 10.3390/su152416649
Kuşkapan E. Çodur M.Y. Promoting Pedestrian Transportation to Reducing Air Pollution from Urban Transport J. Environ. Earth Sci. 2022 4 47 53 10.30564/jees.v4i1.4570
Mansouri Y. Attar A. The Role of Walkability in Creating Sustainable Cities and Communities. Case of the City of Bejaia in Algeria Proceedings of the OIC Youth Scientific Congress Kazan, Russia 21–25 November 2022
World Health Organization WHO Guidelines on Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviour 1st ed. World Health Organization Geneva, Switzerland 2020 978-92-4-001512-8
Westenhöfer J. Nouri E. Reschke M.L. Seebach F. Buchcik J. Walkability and Urban Built Environments—A Systematic Review of Health Impact Assessments (HIA) BMC Public Health 2023 23 518 10.1186/s12889-023-15394-4 36932349
Karolemeas C. Mitropoulos L. Koliou K. Tzamakos D. Stavropoulou E. Moschou E. Kepaptsoglou K. A Systematic Literature Review on Health Benefits, Incentives, and Applications to Promote Walking in Urban Areas Future Transp. 2023 3 1385 1400 10.3390/futuretransp3040076
Ungvari Z. Fazekas-Pongor V. Csiszar A. Kunutsor S.K. The Multifaceted Benefits of Walking for Healthy Aging: From Blue Zones to Molecular Mechanisms GeroScience 2023 45 3211 3239 10.1007/s11357-023-00873-8
Brouillard M. Calleja E. Gadaleta T. Lang K. Walking Our Way to a Healthier Australia Heart Lung Circ. 2024 33 144 10.1016/j.hlc.2024.01.008
Forsyth A. What Is a Walkable Place? The Walkability Debate in Urban Design URBAN Des. Int. 2015 20 274 292 10.1057/udi.2015.22
Hajna S. Ross N.A. Brazeau A.-S. Bélisle P. Joseph L. Dasgupta K. Associations between Neighbourhood Walkability and Daily Steps in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis BMC Public Health 2015 15 768 10.1186/s12889-015-2082-x
Mansouri Y. Attar A. Walking as a Vector of Urban and Landscape Requalification, Focused on the Perception of Lived Spaces Proceedings of the 58th ISOCARP World Planning Congress Brussels, Belgium 3–6 October 2022
Tobin M. Hajna S. Orychock K. Ross N. DeVries M. Villeneuve P.J. Frank L.D. McCormack G.R. Wasfi R. Steinmetz-Wood M. et al. Rethinking Walkability and Developing a Conceptual Definition of Active Living Environments to Guide Research and Practice BMC Public Health 2022 22 450 10.1186/s12889-022-12747-3
Venerandi A. Mellen H. Romice O. Porta S. Walkability Indices—The State of the Art and Future Directions: A Systematic Review Sustainability 2024 16 6730 10.3390/su16166730
Gao W. Qian Y. Chen H. Zhong Z. Zhou M. Aminpour F. Assessment of Sidewalk Walkability: Integrating Objective and Subjective Measures of Identical Context-Based Sidewalk Features Sustain. Cities Soc. 2022 87 104142 10.1016/j.scs.2022.104142
Huang X. Zeng L. Liang H. Li D. Yang X. Zhang B. Comprehensive Walkability Assessment of Urban Pedestrian Environments Using Big Data and Deep Learning Techniques Sci. Rep. 2024 14 26993 10.1038/s41598-024-78041-x 39506013
Chiang Y.-C. Lei H.-Y. Using Expert Decision-Making to Establish Indicators of Urban Friendliness for Walking Environments: A Multidisciplinary Assessment Int. J. Health Geogr. 2016 15 40 10.1186/s12942-016-0071-7 27846889
Poklewski-Koziełł D. Dudzic-Gyurkovich K. Duarte C.M. Investigating Urban Form, and Walkability Measures in the New Developments. The Case Study of Garnizon in Gdansk Land Use Policy 2023 125 106471 10.1016/j.landusepol.2022.106471
Labdaoui K. Mazouz S. Acidi A. Cools M. Moeinaddini M. Teller J. Utilizing Thermal Comfort and Walking Facilities to Propose a Comfort Walkability Index (CWI) at the Neighbourhood Level Build. Environ. 2021 193 107627 10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.107627
Fanger P.O. Thermal Comfort: Analysis and Applications in Environmental Engineering McGraw-Hill New York, NY, USA 1970
Liu Z. Li J. Xi T. A Review of Thermal Comfort Evaluation and Improvement in Urban Outdoor Spaces Buildings 2023 13 3050 10.3390/buildings13123050
Boumaraf H. Amireche L. Microclimatic Quality of Urban Routes and Pedestrian Behavior in Arid Zones Case of the City of Biskra, South-East Algeria Front. Eng. Built Environ. 2023 3 93 107 10.1108/FEBE-04-2022-0015
Muslimin R. Brasier N. An Analysis of Outdoor Thermal Comfort Impact on Pedestrian Walking Patterns at Sub-Hour Timescales with Agent-Based Modelling Smart Sustain. Built Environ. 2024 ahead of print 10.1108/SASBE-06-2023-0158
Krüger E.L. Minella F.O. Rasia F. Impact of Urban Geometry on Outdoor Thermal Comfort and Air Quality from Field Measurements in Curitiba, Brazil Build. Environ. 2011 46 621 634 10.1016/j.buildenv.2010.09.006
Qaoud R. Adel B. Sayad B. Alkama D. Attia S. Assessing the Influence of Neighborhood Urban Form on Outdoor Thermal Conditions in the Hot Dry City of Biskra, Algeria Ain Shams Eng. J. 2023 14 102525 10.1016/j.asej.2023.102525
Guo F. Luo M. Zhang C. Cai J. Zhang X. Zhang H. Dong J. The Mechanism of Street Spatial Form on Thermal Comfort from Urban Morphology and Human-Centered Perspectives: A Study Based on Multi-Source Data Buildings 2024 14 3253 10.3390/buildings14103253
Sharmin T. Steemers K. Matzarakis A. Microclimatic Modelling in Assessing the Impact of Urban Geometry on Urban Thermal Environment Sustain. Cities Soc. 2017 34 293 308 10.1016/j.scs.2017.07.006
Lau T.-K. Lin T.-P. Lowering the Difficulty of Mesoscale Sky View Factor Mapping Using Satellite Products Remote Sens. Appl. Soc. Environ. 2024 34 101174 10.1016/j.rsase.2024.101174
Nikolopoulou M. Designing Open Spaces in the Urban Environment: A Bioclimatic Approach Centre for Renewable Energy Sources, EESD, FP5 Attica, Greece 2004 960-86907-2-2
Elnabawi M.H. Hamza N. Dudek S. Thermal Perception of Outdoor Urban Spaces in the Hot Arid Region of Cairo, Egypt Sustain. Cities Soc. 2016 22 136 145 10.1016/j.scs.2016.02.005
Liu Z. Yao Z. Wang R. Evaluating the Surface Temperature and Vegetation Index (Ts/VI) Method for Estimating Surface Soil Moisture in Heterogeneous Regions Hydrol. Res. 2018 49 689 699 10.2166/nh.2017.079
Salvati A. Kolokotroni M. Kotopouleas A. Watkins R. Giridharan R. Nikolopoulou M. Impact of Reflective Materials on Urban Canyon Albedo, Outdoor and Indoor Microclimates Build. Environ. 2022 207 108459 10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.108459
Lopez-Cabeza V.P. Alzate-Gaviria S. Diz-Mellado E. Rivera-Gomez C. Galan-Marin C. Albedo Influence on the Microclimate and Thermal Comfort of Courtyards under Mediterranean Hot Summer Climate Conditions Sustain. Cities Soc. 2022 81 103872 10.1016/j.scs.2022.103872
Lindner-Cendrowska K. Kuchcik M. The Impact of Wind Speed Measurement Method on MRT and PET Values in Limited Air Flow Conditions on Warm, Sunny Days Int. J. Biometeorol. 2024 68 807 810 10.1007/s00484-024-02623-7
Shooshtarian S. Rajagopalan P. Perception of Wind in Open Spaces Climate 2019 7 106 10.3390/cli7090106
Watanabe H. Sugi T. Saito K. Nagashima K. Mechanism Underlying the Influence of Humidity on Thermal Comfort and Stress under Mimicked Working Conditions Physiol. Behav. 2024 285 114653 10.1016/j.physbeh.2024.114653
Middel A. Selover N. Hagen B. Chhetri N. Impact of Shade on Outdoor Thermal Comfort—A Seasonal Field Study in Tempe, Arizona Int. J. Biometeorol. 2016 60 1849 1861 10.1007/s00484-016-1172-5 27192997
Chapman S. Thatcher M. Salazar A. Watson J.E.M. McAlpine C.A. The Effect of Urban Density and Vegetation Cover on the Heat Island of a Subtropical City J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol. 2018 57 2531 2550 10.1175/JAMC-D-17-0316.1
Weng Q. Liu H. Lu D. Assessing the Effects of Land Use and Land Cover Patterns on Thermal Conditions Using Landscape Metrics in City of Indianapolis, United States Urban Ecosyst. 2007 10 203 219 10.1007/s11252-007-0020-0
Zhao Q. Sailor D.J. Wentz E.A. Impact of Tree Locations and Arrangements on Outdoor Microclimates and Human Thermal Comfort in an Urban Residential Environment Urban For. Urban Green. 2018 32 81 91 10.1016/j.ufug.2018.03.022
Arrar F.H. Kaoula D. Matallah M.E. Abdessemed-Foufa A. Taleghani M. Attia S. Quantification of Outdoor Thermal Comfort Levels under Sea Breeze in the Historical City Fabric: The Case of Algiers Casbah Atmosphere 2022 13 575 10.3390/atmos13040575
Ali-Toudert F. Mayer H. Numerical Study on the Effects of Aspect Ratio and Orientation of an Urban Street Canyon on Outdoor Thermal Comfort in Hot and Dry Climate Build. Environ. 2006 41 94 108 10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.01.013
Ali Smail S. Zemmouri N. Djenane M. Nikolopoulou M. Investigating the Transient Conditions of “Sabat” Space and Its Influence on Pedestrian Sensations during Thermal Walks. Algiers’ Casbah Case Study Build. Environ. 2024 261 111760 10.1016/j.buildenv.2024.111760
Vasilikou C. Nikolopoulou M. Outdoor Thermal Comfort for Pedestrians in Movement: Thermal Walks in Complex Urban Morphology Int. J. Biometeorol. 2020 64 277 291 10.1007/s00484-019-01782-2
Boumezoued S. Bada Y. Bougdah H. Pedestrian Itinerary Choice: Between Multi-Sensory, Affective and Syntactic Aspects of the Street Pattern in the Historic Quarter of Bejaia, Algeria Int. Rev. Spat. Plan. Sustain. Dev. 2020 8 91 108 10.14246/irspsda.8.4_91
Ikni K. Debache-Benzagouta S. Woloszyn P. La Chronotopie Du Paysage Sonore Urbain Des Places Publiques: Le Cas de La Place 1er Novembre 1954 à Béjaïa (Algérie). Cybergeo: European Journal of Geography. Environnement Nature Paysage, Document 942 Available online: http://journals.openedition.org/cybergeo/34704 (accessed on 15 January 2022) 10.4000/cybergeo.34704
Bouaifel K. Madani S. Urban landscape and sensitive dimension. The Case of the old city of Béjaia, Algeria Bull. Société Géographique Liège 2021 77 45 67 10.25518/0770-7576.6488
Caillart E. Cusenier P. Bazizi K. Pour la Sauvegarde et la Mise en Valeur de la Médina de Béjaïa 2004 Available online: https://whc.unesco.org/fr/activites/769/ (accessed on 11 January 2022)
Salvator L. Bougie, la Perle de l’Afrique du Nord Jambert V. L’Harmattan Paris, France 1999
Mansouri Y. Stefàno D. The Perception of Mediterranean Cities through Walking. The Landscape of Béjaïa in Algeria and Loulé in Portugal Proceedings of the International Conference on Changing Cities VI: Spatial, Design, Landscape, Heritage & Socio-economic Dimensions Rhodes Island, Greece 24–28 June 2024
Bardin L. Le texte et l’image Commun. Lang. 1975 26 98 112 10.3406/colan.1975.4211
Mucchielli R. L’Analyse de Contenu des Documents et des Communications ESF Éditeur Paris, France 1974 978-2-7101-3719-1
ISO 7726:1998 Ergonomics of the Thermal Environment—Instruments for Measuring Physical Quantities International Organization for Standardization Geneva, Switzerland 1998
World Meteorological Organization Guide to Instruments and Methods of Observation WMO-No. 8 World Meteorological Organization Geneva, Switzerland 2018
Matallah M.E. Alkama D. Ahriz A. Attia S. Assessment of the Outdoor Thermal Comfort in Oases Settlements Atmosphere 2020 11 185 10.3390/atmos11020185
Matzarakis A. Graw K. Human Bioclimate Analysis for the Paris Olympic Games Atmosphere 2022 13 269 10.3390/atmos13020269
Matzarakis A. Gangwisch M. Fröhlich D. RayMan and SkyHelios Model Urban Microclimate Modelling for Comfort and Energy Studies Palme M. Salvati A. Springer International Publishing Cham, Switzerland 2021 339 361 978-3-030-65420-7
Matzarakis A. Laschewski G. Muthers S. The Heat Health Warning System in Germany—Application and Warnings for 2005 to 2019 Atmosphere 2020 11 170 10.3390/atmos11020170
Fröhlich D. Gangwisch M. Matzarakis A. Effect of Radiation and Wind on Thermal Comfort in Urban Environments—Application of the RayMan and SkyHelios Model Urban Clim. 2019 27 1 7 10.1016/j.uclim.2018.10.006
Matzarakis A. Comments about Urban Bioclimate Aspects for Consideration in Urban Climate and Planning Issues in the Era of Climate Change Atmosphere 2021 12 546 10.3390/atmos12050546
Matzarakis A. Fröhlich D. Influence of Urban Green on Human Thermal Bioclimate—Application of Thermal Indices and Micro-Scale Models Acta Hortic. 2018 1215 1 10 10.17660/ActaHortic.2018.1215.1
Matzarakis A. Rutz F. Mayer H. Modelling Radiation Fluxes in Simple and Complex Environments: Basics of the RayMan Model Int. J. Biometeorol. 2010 54 131 139 10.1007/s00484-009-0261-0
Matzarakis A. Rutz F. Mayer H. Modelling Radiation Fluxes in Simple and Complex Environments—Application of the RayMan Model Int. J. Biometeorol. 2007 51 323 334 10.1007/s00484-006-0061-8
Vallejo-Borda J.A. Cantillo V. Rodriguez-Valencia A. A Perception-Based Cognitive Map of the Pedestrian Perceived Quality of Service on Urban Sidewalks Transp. Res. Part F Traffic Psychol. Behav. 2020 73 107 118 10.1016/j.trf.2020.06.013
Huguenin-Richard F. Cloutier M.-S. Mesure du Potentiel de Marche et de l’accessibilité dans les Espaces Urbains pour les Piétons Âgés Flux 2021 123 30 53 10.3917/flux1.123.0030
Limna P. The Impact of NVivo in Qualitative Research: Perspectives from Graduate Students J. Appl. Learn. Teach. 2023 6 6.2.17 10.37074/jalt.2023.6.2.17
ISO 20252:2019 Market, Opinion and Social Research, Including Insights and Data Analytics—Vocabulary and Service Requirements International Organization for Standardization Geneva, Switzerland 2019
Kuo C.-Y. Wang R.-J. Lin Y.-P. Lai C.-M. Urban Design with the Wind: Pedestrian-Level Wind Field in the Street Canyons Downstream of Parallel High-Rise Buildings Energies 2020 13 2827 10.3390/en13112827
Adamek K. Vasan N. Elshaer A. English E. Bitsuamlak G. Pedestrian Level Wind Assessment through City Development: A Study of the Financial District in Toronto Sustain. Cities Soc. 2017 35 178 190 10.1016/j.scs.2017.06.004
Wang R. Liu Y. A Long Sequence Urban Block Wind Speed Prediction and Wind-Induced Pedestrian Risk Analysis Method Proceedings of the IEEE 2024 3rd International Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Internet of Things and Cloud Computing Technology (AIoTC) Wuhan, China 13 September 2024 248 251
Wu B. Zhang Y. Wang Y. He Y. Wang J. Wu Y. Lin X. Wu S. Mitigation of Urban Heat Island in China (2000–2020) through Vegetation-Induced Cooling Sustain. Cities Soc. 2024 112 105599 10.1016/j.scs.2024.105599
Calhoun Z.D. Willard F. Ge C. Rodriguez C. Bergin M. Carlson D. Estimating the Effects of Vegetation and Increased Albedo on the Urban Heat Island Effect with Spatial Causal Inference Sci. Rep. 2024 14 540 10.1038/s41598-023-50981-w
Schlaerth H.L. Silva S.J. Li Y. Li D. Albedo as a Competing Warming Effect of Urban Greening J. Geophys. Res. Atmospheres 2023 128 e2023JD038764 10.1029/2023JD038764
Wei R. Yan J. Cui Y. Song D. Yin X. Sun N. Studies on the Specificity of Outdoor Thermal Comfort during the Warm Season in High-Density Urban Areas Buildings 2023 13 2473 10.3390/buildings13102473
Lau K.K.-L. Choi C.Y. The Influence of Perceived Aesthetic and Acoustic Quality on Outdoor Thermal Comfort in Urban Environment Build. Environ. 2021 206 108333 10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.108333
Guergour H. Cheraitia M. Dechaicha A. Alkama D. Optimization of Urban Morphology to Enhance Outdoor Thermal Comfort: A Microclimate Analysis J. Bulg. Geogr. Soc. 2024 51 107 130 10.3897/jbgs.e128961
Salmanian M. Mousavi M. Nasirimehr P. Takhmiri H. Binti Ujang N. Fairuz Shahidan M. Binti Dahlan N.D. Examining the influence of urban form on the thermal comfort of street canyons in tehran: A case study of narmak neighbourhood J. Archit. Plan. Constr. Manag. 2024 14 10.31436/japcm.v14i1.862
Diz-Mellado E. López-Cabeza V.P. Roa-Fernández J. Rivera-Gómez C. Galán-Marín C. Energy-Saving and Thermal Comfort Potential of Vernacular Urban Block Porosity Shading Sustain. Cities Soc. 2023 89 104325 10.1016/j.scs.2022.104325
Siani R. De Luca F. Gherri B. Improving Climate Adaptation of Urban Spaces in Historical Contexts Through Shading Structures—A Case Study of Integration of Research and Student Work in Italy Blucher Design Proceedings Editora Blucher Punta del Este, Uruguay 2024 82 93
Behzad Z. Guilandoust A. Enhancing Outdoor Thermal Comfort in a Historic Site in a Hot Dry Climate (Case Study: Naghsh-e-Jahan Square, Isfahan) Sustain. Cities Soc. 2024 102 105209 10.1016/j.scs.2024.105209
Gehl J. Life Between Buildings: Using Public Space Island Press Washington, DC, USA 2011 978-1-59726-827-1
Bowler D.E. Buyung-Ali L.M. Knight T.M. Pullin A.S. A Systematic Review of Evidence for the Added Benefits to Health of Exposure to Natural Environments BMC Public Health 2010 10 456 10.1186/1471-2458-10-456
Ji W. Cao B. Luo M. Zhu Y. Influence of Short-Term Thermal Experience on Thermal Comfort Evaluations: A Climate Chamber Experiment Build. Environ. 2017 114 246 256 10.1016/j.buildenv.2016.12.021
Lau K.K.-L. Shi Y. Ng E.Y.-Y. Dynamic Response of Pedestrian Thermal Comfort under Outdoor Transient Conditions Int. J. Biometeorol. 2019 63 979 989 10.1007/s00484-019-01712-2
Jiang Y. Liu D. Ren L. Grekousis G. Lu Y. Tree Abundance, Species Richness, or Species Mix? Exploring the Relationship between Features of Urban Street Trees and Pedestrian Volume in Jinan, China Urban For. Urban Green. 2024 95 128294 10.1016/j.ufug.2024.128294
Norton B.A. Mears M. Warren P.H. Siriwardena G.M. Plummer K.E. Turner T. Hancock S. Grafius D.R. Evans K.L. Biodiversity and Environmental Stressors along Urban Walking Routes Urban For. Urban Green. 2023 85 127951 10.1016/j.ufug.2023.127951
Janeczko E. Czyżyk K. Korcz N. Woźnicka M. Bielinis E. The Psychological Effects and Benefits of Using Green Spaces in the City: A Field Experiment with Young Polish Adults Forests 2023 14 497 10.3390/f14030497
Rathnayke S. Amofah S. Health and Wellbeing Implications of Urban Green Exposure on Young Adults in a European City J. Adv. Res. Soc. Sci. 2023 6 53 70 10.33422/jarss.v6i4.1136
