A case for activating producers’ rights in discussions on conservation of biodiversity through Geographical Indications

Saxena, Devanshi; Frison, Christine

doi:10.1093/jiplp/jpae005

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A case for activating producers’ rights in discussions on conservation of biodiversity through Geographical Indications

Saxena, Devanshi; Frison, Christine

2024 • In Journal of Intellectual Property Law and Practice, 19 (8), p. 639 - 647

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10.1093/jiplp/jpae005

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Law

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[en] Geographical Indications (GIs) are collective rights granted to a group of producers in a limited geographical area. One of the rationales of GI protection is biodiversity conservation which is rapidly being advanced. However, if the GI fails to value the terroir associated with it, it can risk erosion of bio(cultural)diversity. In this paper, taking lessons from such experiences, we argue for activating producers’ rights in discussions on biodiversity conservation through GIs and for the systematic inclusion of environmental law, which is considered relevant by the producers, in the GI specification. The rationale of sustainability and sustainable development and the integration of the capabilities approach to IP governance is part of our theoretical underpinnings for such an argument. Given the relationship between these concepts, we first explain biodiversity conservation and then situate the role of GIs in this context. Finally, we also differentiate between third-party certifications and eco-labels and GIs. The role of the former can be useful but limited as GIs offer a better opportunity to include producers’ own views. We support our arguments throughout the paper using various examples from secondary empirical research. In practice, we argue for making GI laws, including designing of GI specifications, in a manner that producers’ participation is included by design. Considerations of bio(cultural)diversity should be, by design, a part of GIs to increase their efficiency in fulfilling this rationale of protection. This calls for more interdisciplinary and intradisciplinary engagement from GI scholars as well.

Disciplines :

European & international law

Author, co-author :

Saxena, Devanshi ; Faculty of Law, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium

Frison, Christine ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Cité ; Faculty of Law, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium

Language :

English

Title :

A case for activating producers’ rights in discussions on conservation of biodiversity through Geographical Indications

Publication date :

2024

Journal title :

Journal of Intellectual Property Law and Practice

ISSN :

1747-1532

eISSN :

1747-1540

Publisher :

Oxford University Press

Volume :

Issue :

Pages :

639 - 647

Peer reviewed :

Peer Reviewed verified by ORBi

Additional URL :

https://academic.oup.com/jiplp/article-pdf/19/8/639/58698361/jpae005.pdf

European Projects :

HE - 101117449 - DecoLawBiodiv - Decolonizing International Biodiversity Law : Digital Sequence Information as a revealer

Funders :

F.R.S.-FNRS - Fund for Scientific Research
European Union

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since 24 March 2025

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Bibliography

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5Irene Calboli, ‘Geographical Indications between Trade, Development, Culture, and Marketing: Framing a Fair(Er) System of Protection in the Global Economy?’ in Irene Calboli and Wee Loon Ng-Loy (eds), Geographical Indications at the Crossroads of Trade, Development and Culture (Cambridge University Press 2017) 19.
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9Vandecandelaere and others (n 6) xviii.
11Margaret Chon, ‘Recasting Intellectual Property in Light of The U.N. Sustainable Development Goals: Toward Global Knowledge Governance’ (2019) 34 American University International Law Review 763.
12Irene Calboli and Delphine Marie-Vivien, ‘One Size Does Not Fit All: The Roles of the State and the Private Sector in the Governance Framework of Geographical Indications’ in Margaret Chon and others (eds), The Cambridge Handbook of Public-Private Partnerships, Intellectual Property Governance, and Sustainable Development (Cambridge University Press 2018) 308.
13This argument is part of the arguments being explored in the ongoing thesis of Author 1.
14See particularly, Sumudu A Atapattu and others(eds), The Cambridge Handbook of Environmental Justice and Sustainable Development (Cambridge University Press Cambridge and New York 2020).
15Jacobus A Du Pisani, ‘Sustainable Development – Historical Roots of the Concept’ (2006) 3 Environmental Sciences 83; Philipp Dann and Michael Riegner, ‘Actors and Instruments’ in Koen De Feyter and others (eds), Encyclopedia of Law and Development (Edward Elgar Cheltenham and Northhampton 2021) 8; Patric Brandful Cobbinah and others, ‘Reflections on Six Decades of the Concept of Development: Evaluation and Future Research’ (2011) 13 Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa 134.
16Ecological economists and eco-feminists were problematizing development in the 1960s and 1970s. See more Shivani Kaul and others, ‘Alternatives to Sustainable Development: What Can We Learn from the Pluriverse in Practice?’ (2022) 17 Sustainability Science 1149. https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11625-022-01210-2 (accessed 25 July 2022).
17This was considered revolutionary by Amartya Sen as the report combined intergenerational justice with a concern for the poor (capability deprived) in each generation. Amartya Sen, ‘The Ends and Means of Sustainability’ (2013) 14 Journal of Human Development and Capabilities 6, 8.
18Gro Harlem Brundtland, ‘Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future’ (1987). Available at https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/5987our-common-future.pdf (accessed 13 July 2021).
19Sumudu A Atapattu and others, ‘Intersections of Environmental Justice and Sustainable Development: Framing the Issues’ in Sumudu A Atapattu and others (eds), The Cambridge Handbook of Environmental Justice and Sustainable Development (Cambridge University Press Cambridge and New York 2021) 3.
20Chris Sneddon and others, ‘Sustainable Development in a Post-Brundtland World’ (2006) 57 Ecological Economics 253, 254.
21Bill Hopwood and others, ‘Sustainable Development: Mapping Different Approaches’ (2005) 13 Sustainable Development 38, 41.
22Jan Orbie, ‘Waarom de Duurzame Ontwikkelingsdoelen de Wereld Niet Zullen Redden’ (MO, 12 February 2020). Available at https://www.mo.be/opinie/waarom-de-duurzame-ontwikkelingsdoelen-de-wereld-niet-zullen-redden?utm_ content=bufferb6fa3&utm_medium=soci%E2%80%A6 (accessed 17 February 2020).
23Ashish Kothari and others (eds), Pluriverse: A Post-Development Dictionary (Tulika Books and Authorsupfront New Delhi 2019); Vincent Liegey and Anita Nelson, Exploring Degrowth: A Critical Guide (Pluto Press London 2020); Kaul and others (n 16).
24Kothari and others (n 23); Ashish Kothari and others, ‘Buen Vivir, Degrowth and Ecological Swaraj: Alternatives to Sustainable Development and the Green Economy’ (2014) 57 Development 362; Federico Demaria and Ashish Kothari, ‘The Post-Development Dictionary Agenda: Paths to the Pluriverse’ (2017) 38 Third World Quarterly 2588; Atapattu, Gonzalez and Seck (n 14); Dorine E van Norren, ‘The Sustainable Development Goals Viewed through Gross National Happiness, Ubuntu, and Buen Vivir’ (2020) 20 International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics 431.
25van Norren (n 24).
26Sneddon and others(n 20).
27ibid 262. See also, Giada Pistilli, ‘L’approche Des Capabilités Appliquée Au Développement Durable’ (2018) 8.
28Sunder (n 8); Vandecandelaere and others (n 6).
29Atapattu and others(n 19); Nicole Aylwin and Rosemary J Coombe, ‘Marks Indicating Conditions of Origin in Rights-Based Sustainable Development’ (2014) 47 University of California, Davis 753.
30Sunder (n 8).
31The ‘third-world’ is an old categorization of countries that dates back to the Cold war. While the usage continues to be problematic because of its western lens on the rest of the world and because it puts the locus of knowledge in the west, this term also helps build solidarities amongst scholars from the so-called third world and has been reclaimed by scholarly fields such as third-world approaches to international law scholars or third-world feminist approaches. In this sense, the third world is not necessarily geographically limited. Usha Natarajan argues that there is global north in the south and global south in the north. The usage of the term has more to do with power imbalances and structural and systemic inequalities. Usha Natarajan, ‘Environmental Justice in the Global South’ in Sumudu A Atapattu and others (eds), The Cambridge Handbook of Environmental Justice and Sustainable Development (1st edn Cambridge University Press Cambridge and New York 2021) 39. https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781108555791%23CN-bp3/type/book_part (accessed 25 July 2022).
32Sunder (n 8) 462. Quoting Vandana Shiva, she writes, ‘When law defines the contributions of the poor as nature rather than culture, the “creativity of both nature and other cultures is negated”’ (p.459).
33ibid 465–472. For other criticisms along these lines, see Jupi Gogoi, ‘Promoting Human Rights Through the Law of Geographical Indications: Mirage or A Reality’ in Manoj Kumar Sinha and Jupi Gogoi (eds), IPR and Human Rights with Special Emphasis on India (Indian Law Institute New Delhi 2018) 255.
34Sunder (n 8) 471.
35See more in Madhavi Sunder, From Goods to a Good Life: Intellectual Property and Global Justice (Yale University Press New Haven 2012).
37Georg Toepfer, ‘On the Impossibility and Dispensability of Defining “Biodiversity”’ in Casetta and others (eds), From Assessing to Conserving Biodiversity: Conceptual and Practical Challenges, vol. 24 (Springer Open 2019) 344.
38Toepfer (n 37).
39Clare Fieseler, ‘The Case against the Concept of Biodiversity’ Vox (5 August 2021). Available at https://www.vox.com/22584103/biodiversity-species-conservationdebate (accessed 26 July 2022).
40The Convention on Biological Diversity of 5 June 1992 (1760U.N.T.S. 69), Art 2.
41Christine Frison, ‘Biodiversity’ in Koen De Feyter and others (eds), Encylopedia of Law and Development (Edward Elgar Cheltenham 2021) 20.
42See Fabien Girard and others, (eds), Biocultural Rights, Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities: Protecting Culture and the Environment (Routledge London and New York 2022) ch 1, where authors connect the history of biodiversity with the concept of biocultural diversity and create a quintessential bridge between nature and cultures of indigenous and tribal peoples. ‘At the very least, this “biocultural axiom” has nurtured the notion that biodiversity forms part of complex territorialised networks, living systems, inextricably linking worldviews and praxis, expressing attachments to the earth and more-than-humans (Tsing, 2013); and that, therefore, alternative approaches to biodiversity conservation ought to be sustained, bounding up considerations of human rights, equity, ethics, and ontologies (see Mulrennan & Bussières, 2020, p. 299)’.
43van Norren (n 24) 252.
44Laurence Bérard and Philippe Marchenay, ‘From Localised Products to Geographical Indications’ (CNRS Ressources des terroirs 2008). Available at https://www.ethno-terroirs.cnrs.fr/IMG/pdf/Localized_Products_to_GI.pdf (accessed 27 December 2020).
45Nathalie Spielmann and Claire Gélinas-Chebat, ‘Terroir? That’s Not How I Would Describe It’ (2012) 24 International Journal of Wine Business Research 254.
46TRIPS: Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, 15 April 1994, Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, Annex 1C, 1869 U.N.T.S. 299, 1994 [TRIPS Agreement].
47Terroir eludes literal translation in English; however, several definitions have been given. Spielmann et al. define it as ‘…having physical and agricultural origins, based on the terre or territorial bases of the word and of the concept […] Additionally, terroir has a human dimension, originating from the fact that to express the quality of the land, human intervention is required. As such savoir-faire, knowledge, traditions, and the social characteristics of terroir are also features that terroir can evoke’. Spielmann and Gélinas-Chebat (n 45). Wilson explains that, ‘…The true concept is not easily grasped but includes physical elements of the vineyard habitat- the vine, subsoil, siting, drainage, and micro-climate. Beyond the measurable ecosystem, there is an additional dimension – the spiritual aspect that recognizes the joys, the heartbreaks, the pride, the sweat, and the frustrations of its history’. Wilson 1998 cited in Elizabeth Barham, ‘“Translating Terroir” Revisited: The Global Challenge of French AOC Labelling’, Research Handbook on Intellectual Property and Geographical Indications (Edward Elgar 2016). See further discussion in Devanshi Saxena and Esther van Zimmeren, ‘The Transforming Face of Terroir: Unde Venis Geographical Indications?’ in P Sean Morris (ed), Intellectual Property and the Law of Nations, 1860–1920 (Brill Leiden and Boston 2022) 375.
48Andrea Zappalaglio, The Transformation of EU Geographical Indications Law (Routledge Oxon 2021) 54.
49Lisbon Agreement for the Protection of Appellations of Origin and their International Registration 1958 (as amended on 28 September 1979), WIPO Lex No. TRT/LISBON/001 [Lisbon Agreement]. To learn more about the process of arriving at the TRIPS definition and its connection with European regional developments on GIs, see ibid 111–114.
50WIPO, ‘Geographical Indications’,Available at https://www.wipo.int/geo_indications/en/ (accessed 8 August 2022).
51Tomer Broude, ‘Taking “Trade and Culture” Seriously: Geographical Indications and Cultural Protection in WTO Law’ (2005) 26 University of Pennsylvania Law Review 623; Michael Blakeney, ‘The Protection of Traditional Cultural Expressions by Geographical Indications’ in Irini Stamatoudi (ed), Research Handbook on Intellectual Property and Cultural Heritage (Edward Elgar Cheltenham and Northampton 2022) 236.
52Zappalaglio (n 48) 104.
53Anke van Moerland, ‘Do Developing Countries Have a Say? Bilateral and Regional Intellectual Property Negotiations with the EU’ (2017) 48 International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law 760.
54Registration of Rooibos as a trade mark in the US brought the producers together starting a process that led to the protection of Rooibos as a GI in South Africa in 2014. WIPO, ‘Disputing a Name, Developing a Geographical Indication’. Available at https://www.wipo.int/ipadvantage/en/details.jsp?id=2691 (accessed 8 August 2022).
55Basmati was one of the first GIs in India as a response to the US Patent Office granting a ‘Basmati Rice Lines and Grains’ patent to Texas-based RiceTec. Kasturi Das, ‘International Protection of India’s Geographical Indications with Special Reference to “Darjeeling” Tea’ (2006) 9 The Journal of World Intellectual Property 459, 461.
56See the dispute between Ethiopian IP Office and trade mark registrations for Ethiopian coffee varieties by the US Trademark Office, WIPO, ‘The Coffee War: Ethiopia and the Starbucks Story’. Available at https://www.wipo.int/ipadvantage/en/details.jsp?id=2621 (accessed 8 August 2022). Misappropriation of Ethiopian coffee names was also one of the rationales for the protection of these names WIPO, ‘The Strategic Use of Intellectual Property for Prosperity and Development’ (2009) Compendium of the Proceedings of the High-Level Forum on Intellectual Property for the Least Developed Countries. Available at https://www.wipo.int/publications/en/details.jsp?id=371 (accessed 8 August 2022).
57For both Rooibos and Basmati and impact of misappropriation by US companies, see also Estelle Biénabe and Delphine Marie-Vivien, ‘Institutionalizing Geographical Indications in Southern Countries: Lessons Learned from Basmati and Rooibos’ (2017) 98 World Development 58, 59–60.
58Michael Handler and Robert Burrell, ‘GI Blues: The Global Disagreement Over Geographical Indications’ in Kathy Bowrey, Michael Handler and Dianne Nicol (eds), Emerging Challenges in Intellectual Property (Oxford University Press Melbourne 2011) 143.
59van Moerland (n 53).
60Laurence Bérard and Philippe Marchenay, ‘Local Products and Geographical Indications: Taking Account of Local Knowledge and Biodiversity’ (2006) 58 International Social Science Journal 109.
61Zappalaglio (n 48) 229.
62Bérard and Marchenay (n 44) 57.
63Estelle Biénabe et al., ‘Le Rooibos d’Afrique Du Sud: Comment La Biodiversité s’invite Dans La Construction d’une Indication Géographique:’ (2009) 50 Autrepart 117.
64Cerkia Bramley et al., ‘The Economics of Geographical Indications: Towards a Conceptual Framework for Geographical Indication Research in Developing Countries’, The economics of intellectual property (WIPO 2009) 60. Available at https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/economics/1012/wipo_pub_1012.pdf (accessed 20 January 2019).
66Biénabe and Marie-Vivien (n 57) 60.
67Regulations Relating to the Protection of Geographical Indications Used on Agricultural Products Intended for Sale in the Republic of South Africa, No R.447, 22 March 2019. Available at https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201903/42324rg10925gon447.pdf (accessed 14 August 2015). While further discussion on these is not within the scope of this article, see Sadulla Karjiker, ‘Geographical Indications: The Cuckoo in the IP Nest’ (2020) 137 South African Law Journal 763.
68Zappalaglio (n 48).
69‘Production knowledge, such as techniques for cultivation and processing, is often associated with specific biomaterial (“biodiversity-related knowledge”) and is usually “informal” and “customary” and, thus, hedged in positive law and easily appropriable for industrial application by third parties unrelated to the originating community (“bio-agro-piracy”)’. Rocco Palma, ‘Agroecology and Geographical Indications at the WTO and in the EU Between Magic and Rationality: “Reinventing” Marketing Designations to Preserve Rural Economy, Cultural Heritage and the Environment’, Food Diversity Between Rights, Duties and Autonomies (Springer Cham 2018) 63.
70Alessandro Gocci and Christoph Luetge, ‘The Synergy of Tradition and Innovation Leading to Sustainable Geographical Indication Products: A Literature Review’ (2020) 10 Journal of Management and sustainability 152.
71Michael Blakeney, ‘Geographical Indications and Environmental Protections’ (2017) 12 Frontiers of Law in China 162.
72Regulation (EU) No 1151/2012 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 November 2012 on quality schemes for agricultural products and foodstuffs, L 343/1 [Quality Schemes Regulation].
73Mariano Riccheri and others, ‘Workpackage 3 Assessing the Applicability of Geographical Indications as a Means to Improve Environmental Quality in Affected Ecosystems and the Competitiveness of Agricultural Products’ (2007) 3 44. Available at https://ideas.repec.org/p/ess/wpaper/id847.html (accessed 12 July 2021).
75Ramsar.org, ‘The List of Wetlands of International Importance’. Available at https://www.ramsar.org/sites/default/files/documents/library/sitelist.pdf (accessed 12 August 2022) 45.
76Riccheri and others (n 73) 46.
78Iker Morán, ‘El Año Más Incierto Para El Arroz En España: Sequía En El Sur y Siembra Tardía En Valencia’ La Vanguardia (10 August 2022). Available at https://www.lavanguardia.com/comer/al-dia/20220810/8457418/sequia-arrozvalencia-delta-produccion.html (accessed 12 August 2022).
79Blakeney (n 71) 167.
80See also eg, Manchego cheese in Vandecandelaere and others (n 4) and Ardéche chestnuts from France in Bérard and Marchenay (n 44).
81Claire Bernard-Mongin and others, ‘Geographical Indication Building Process for Sharr Cheese (Kosovo): “Inside Insights” on Sustainability’ (2021) 13 Sustainability 5696, 7–9.
82Barbara Pick, Intellectual Property and Development: Geographical Indications in Practice (Routledge Oxon and New York 2023) 201.
84Bernard-Mongin and others (n 81).
85Luke Owen and others, ‘Place-Based Pathways to Sustainability: Exploring Alignment between Geographical Indications and the Concept of Agroecology Territories in Wales’ (2020) 12 Sustainability 4890.
86Bernard-Mongin and others (n 81) 13.
87Biénabe, Leclercq and Moity-Maïzi (n 63).
88Application for protection of the name ‘Rooibos / Red Bush’ in terms of Regulation (EU) No 1151/2012, ZA/PDO/0005/02427, Date of application: 21 August 2018.
89Rosemary J Coombe and S Ali Malik, ‘Transforming the Work of Geographical Indications to Decolonize Racialized Labor and Support Agroecology’ (2018) 8 UC Irvine Law Review 363, 376–379.
90Sarah Fleming Ives, Steeped in Heritage: The Racial Politics of South African Rooibos Tea (Duke University Press Durham 2017) 195.
92Thomas J Basset et al., ‘Constructing Locality: The Terroir Approach in West Africa’ (2007) 77 Nature as Local Heritage in Africa 104.
93Ives (n 90) 196.
94Pick (n 82) 202.
96Broude (n 51).
97Anke van Moerland, ‘Geographical Indications and Innovation, What Is the Connection?’ in The Innovation Society and Intellectual Property (Edward Elgar Cheltenham 2019) 59.
98Bowen and Zapata (n 1).
99‘In the case of tequila, the links oriented towards the end of the chain obtain the highest profits. Industries that are located in the DO zone, which process on a large scale and traders who are often foreign packers, mainly from the United States, are the main beneficiaries of the DO’. Pérez-Akaki and others (n 1) 20. Even when there is no evidence of causal connection between the deterioration of GI and its terroir, other causes of environmental harm such as global warming can necessitate that GI holders also take the impact of the GI production seriously. For example, the impact of climate change on the production of Muga silk which may force the relocation of GI production to another territory which was originally not protected by the GI. Our thanks to prof. Jupi Gogoi for this insight. See Sahana Ghosh, ‘Assam’s Muga Silkworm Battles Climate Change’ (Mongabay, 23 February 2018). Available at https://india.mongabay.com/2018/02/assamsmuga-silkworm-battles-climate-change/ (accessed 15 August 2022).
100Ana Valenzuela Zapata and Marie Sarita Gaytan, ‘Sustaining Biological and Cultural Diversity’ (2012) 2 Revue d’ethnoécologie 5.
101Pérez-Akaki and others (n 1) 20. See also, Tetreault, McCulligh and Lucio (n 4).
102Juliana Santilli, ‘Geographical Indications for Agrobiodiversity Products: Case Studies in France, Mexico and Brazil’, in Santilli, Agrobiodiversity and the Law: Regulating Genetic Resources, Food Security and Cultural Diversity (Earthscan London 2012) 314; Rosemary J Coombe and S Ali Malik, ‘Rethinking the Work of Geographical Indications in Asia: Addressing Hidden Geographies of Gendered Labor’ in Irene Calboli and Wee Loon Ng-Loy (eds), Geographical Indications at the Crossroads of Trade, Development, and Culture (1st edn, Cambridge University Press Cambridge 2017) 87. https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781316711002%23CN-bp-4/type/book_part (accessed 3 July 2022).
103Bérard and Marchenay (n 44) 55.
104Pérez-Akaki and others (n 1).
105West gives several examples within Europe to show of how the idea of terroir is bound up in social hierarchies and argues that it can reinforce them. Harry G West, ‘Terroir Products: A Movable Heritage Feast?’ (2022) 103 Review of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Studies 1. See Mancici also for the argument that GIs can introduce new power relations into the supply chain. Maria Cecilia Mancini, ‘Geographical Indications in Latin America Value Chains: A “Branding from below” Strategy or a Mechanism Excluding the Poorest?’ (2013) 32 Journal of Rural Studies 295, 296.
106Sen (n 17) 10.
108Calboli and Marie-Vivien (n 12).
109Vandecandelaere and others (n 6) 26.
110Giovanni Belletti et al., ‘Geographical Indications, Public Goods, and Sustainable Development: The Roles of Actors’ Strategies and Public Policies’ (2017) 98 World Development 45; Enric Castelló et al., ‘The Narratives of Geographical Indications as Commons: A Study on Catalan and Swedish Cases’ (2022) 26 Food, Culture & Society 1014.
111James Kirwan et al., ‘Reflexive Governance, Incorporating Ethics and Changing Understandings of Food Chain Performance: Reflexive Governance, Ethics and Food Chain Performance’ (2017) 57 Sociologia Ruralis 357, cited in Owen and others (n 85) 12.
112An interview from a policy stakeholder quoted in this study says, ‘I think the regulatory floor upon which agriculture stands has to be toughened up quite a lot and has to be enforced much more than it currently is, which from a Protected Food Name point of view is probably a good thing, but it’s also a good thing from the point of view of broader social outcomes’. ibid 14.
113Blakeney (n 71).
114Donna Harraway, ‘Situated Knowledges: The Science Question in Feminism and the Privilege of Partial Perspective’ (1988) 14 Feminist Studies 575.
115Aylwin and Coombe (n 29) 757.
116Pistilli (n 27) 10.
117Coombe and Malik (n 89); Jennifer Keahey and Douglas L Murray, ‘The Promise and Perils of Market-Based Sustainability’ (2017) 3 Sociology of Development 143.
118Delphine Marie-Vivien and Estelle Biénabe, ‘The Multifaceted Role of the State in the Protection of Geographical Indications: A Worldwide Review’ (2017) 98 World Development 1, 4.
119David R Downes and Sarah A Laird, ‘Innovative Mechanisms for Sharing Benefits of Biodiversity and Related Knowledge: Case Studies on Geographical Indications and Trademarks’ (1999).
120Mamen Cuéllar-Padilla and Ernesto Ganuza-Fernandez, ‘We Don’t Want to Be Officially Certified! Reasons and Implications of the Participatory Guarantee Systems’ (2018) 10 Sustainability 1142.
121Eva-Marie Meemken et al., ‘Toward Improving the Design of Sustainability Standards—A Gendered Analysis of Farmers’ Preferences’ (2017) 99 World Development 285.
122Bernard-Mongin and others (n 81).
123Coombe and Malik (n 102) 95.
124Coombe and Malik (n 89) 16.
125Althaf Marsoof and Li Ting Tan, ‘A CSR/Fair Trade Inspired Policy for Fairer Geographical Indications’ (2021) 24 The Journal of World Intellectual Property 253.
126‘The term is used in economics, political science, and related disciplines to describe the way socially advantaged people tend to gain control over benefits meant for everyone’. Olúfmi O Táíwò, Elite Capture: How the Powerful Took over Identity Politics (and Everything Else) (Haymarket Books Chicago 2022) 22. Tetreault, McCulligh and Lucio (n 4).
127Dev Gangjee, Relocating the Law of Geographical Indications (Cambridge University Press Cambridge 2011) 90.