High resolution reconstruction of modern charcoal production kilns: An integrated approach combining dendrochronology, micromorphology and anthracology in the French Pyrenees
Ancient charcoal production; Anthracology; Dendrochronology; Micromorphology; Modern radiocarbon plateau; Northern pyrenees; Earth-Surface Processes
Résumé :
[en] Numerous charcoal kiln remains can still be found throughout the world, evidencing wood harvesting related to former industries. These remains represent effective sources and tools for studying (i) pre-industrial pressures on forest resources and (ii) past strategies related to woodland management. However, radiocarbon dating (AMS), which is the main tool to reconstruct the chronology of past charcoal manufacturing activity, doesn't provide sufficiently accurate dating, especially for the post-1650 period, due to the broad probability range of the dates resulting from wiggles in the calibration curve. In order to overcome the radiocarbon dating limitation and therefore refine the chronology of modern charcoal manufacturing, this paper proposes to apply an integrated approach combining archaeology, micromorphology, anthracology and dendrochronology. To characterise the archaeological record of a target charcoal kiln terrace from the “Forêt de Bernadouze”, located in a historical iron production valley of the Northern Pyrenees, we combined classical stratigraphic analysis with a micromorphological study. The results highlight the multiperiod nature of the terrace, i.e. a palimpsest of multiple charcoal production episodes, revealing two major phases marked by an abandonment period between them. Subsequently, we constructed a beech charcoal-ring (n = 49) chronology cross-dated with the new “Forêt de Bernadouze” reference chronology from freshly felled, living beech trees (n = 24) to obtain the annual resolution of charcoal ring formation. Based on the new reconstructed master chronology covering the 1879–2016 period, we were able to calibrate the charcoal-ring chronology for the 1881–1941 period. Consequently, we (i) dated the charcoal production activity performed on the target terrace during the 1924–1942 period and (ii) identified a shift in the rate of use of the terrace, from one-off to high-intensive use. This study also provides new insights regarding (i) the particular nature of the archaeological record and (ii) the operating and timing of past charcoal-making practices in connection with silvicultural treatments.
Disciplines :
Archéologie
Auteur, co-auteur :
Fouédjeu, Léonel; GEODE, LABEX DRIIHM, UMR 5602 CNRS Université Toulouse Jean Jaurès, TOULOUSE Cedex 1, France
Saulnier, Mélanie; GEODE, LABEX DRIIHM, UMR 5602 CNRS Université Toulouse Jean Jaurès, TOULOUSE Cedex 1, France ; Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze, c, Suchdol, Czech Republic
Lejay, Mathieu ; TRACES, UMR 5608 CNRS Université Toulouse Jean Jaurès, TOULOUSE Cedex 1, France ; GeoArchEon Sarl, France
Dušátko, Martin; Česká zemědělská univerzita v Praze, c, Suchdol, Czech Republic
Labbas, Vincent ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Unités de recherche interfacultaires > Art, Archéologie et Patrimoine (AAP) ; GEODE, LABEX DRIIHM, UMR 5602 CNRS Université Toulouse Jean Jaurès, TOULOUSE Cedex 1, France ; TRACES, UMR 5608 CNRS Université Toulouse Jean Jaurès, TOULOUSE Cedex 1, France
Jump, Alistair S. ; Biological and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, United Kingdom
Burri, Sylvain; TRACES, UMR 5608 CNRS Université Toulouse Jean Jaurès, TOULOUSE Cedex 1, France
Buscaino, Sandrine; GEODE, LABEX DRIIHM, UMR 5602 CNRS Université Toulouse Jean Jaurès, TOULOUSE Cedex 1, France
Py-Saragaglia, Vanessa; GEODE, LABEX DRIIHM, UMR 5602 CNRS Université Toulouse Jean Jaurès, TOULOUSE Cedex 1, France
Langue du document :
Anglais
Titre :
High resolution reconstruction of modern charcoal production kilns: An integrated approach combining dendrochronology, micromorphology and anthracology in the French Pyrenees
This paper forms part of L. Fou\u00E9djeu's doctoral thesis co-supervised by V. Py-Saragaglia and D. Galop and funded by the University Toulouse 2 Jean Jaur\u00E8s. Financial support for field investigations was provided by the FODYNA and TRANSYLVE projects directed by V. Py-Saragaglia and S. Burri. These projects are part of the OHM-Haut Vicdessos interdisciplinary program led by D. Galop and (co)funded by the LabEx DRIIHM, French program \u201CInvestissements d'Avenir\u201D (ANR-11-LABX-0010) which is managed by the ANR. Special thanks are due to the Regional Archaeological Service of Occitanie (SRA), led by D. Delhoume, which supported the micromorphological study. The authors express their gratitude to the French National Forestry Office (ONF) of Ari\u00E8ge and the loggers who helped collect the wood disks and to V. Pescini for help during fieldwork. Special thanks are due to F. Philippe for his help and knowledge in the field, to the carpenter of the University Toulouse II, H. Come, who helped to prepare pieces of wood for the dendrochronological measurements, and to the Department of Forest Ecology of the Czech university of Life Sciences Prague (Czech Republic), led by M. Svoboda, for their support of the dendrochronological analyses in the framework of a doctoral fellowship funded by TESC PhD School and the GEODE lab. Finally, we thank two anonymous reviewers whose constructive comments led to a significant improvement of this manuscript.This paper forms part of L. Fou\u00E9djeu's doctoral thesis co-supervised by V. Py-Saragaglia and D. Galop and funded by the University Toulouse 2 Jean Jaur\u00E8s. Financial support for field investigations was provided by the FODYNA and TRANSYLVE projects directed by V. Py-Saragaglia and S. Burri. These projects are part of the OHM-Haut Vicdessos interdisciplinary program led by D. Galop and (co)funded by the LabEx DRIIHM, French program \"Investissements d'Avenir\" ( ANR-11-LABX-0010 ) which is managed by the ANR. Special thanks are due to the Regional Archaeological Service of Occitanie (SRA), led by D. Delhoume, which supported the micromorphological study. The authors express their gratitude to the French National Forestry Office (ONF) of Ari\u00E8ge and the loggers who helped collect the wood disks and to V. Pescini for help during fieldwork. Special thanks are due to F. Philippe for his help and knowledge in the field, to the carpenter of the University Toulouse II, H. Come, who helped to prepare pieces of wood for the dendrochronological measurements, and to the Department of Forest Ecology of the Czech university of Life Sciences Prague (Czech Republic), led by M. Svoboda, for their support of the dendrochronological analyses in the framework of a doctoral fellowship funded by TESC PhD School and the GEODE lab. Finally, we thank two anonymous reviewers whose constructive comments led to a significant improvement of this manuscript.
Acovitsioti-Hameau, A., L'habitat des artisans de la forêt en Moyenne Provence: l'exemple des charbonniers, n°181, 1995, Provence Historique, 411–426.
Acovitsioti-Hameau, A., Aller au charbon… Les sites de charbonnage et leur impact sur les paysages forestiers de la colline varoise. Forêt méditerranéenne 22 (2001), 329–343 n°4.
Acovitsioti-Hameau, A., Pratiques et constructions de l'espace sylvopastoral dans le centre-Var : état présent et rétrospective (thesis). Aix-Marseille, 1, 2001.
Allée, P., Paradis, S., Boumédiène, F., Rouaud, R., L'exploitation médiévale du plomb argentifère sur le mont Lozère: archéologie spatiale d'un territoire proto-industriel montagnard. ArchéoSciences, 2010, 177–186, 10.4000/archeosciences.2741.
Backmeroff, C.E., Di Pasquale, G., Dendrochronological dating of charcoal kilns: a new method for dating historical land use at the upper timberline. Kaennel Dobbertin, M., Bräker, O.U., (eds.) 2001. International Conference Tree Rings and People. Davos, 22-26 September 2001, Abstracts. Birmensdorf, 2001, Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL.
Battesti, V., Une charbonnière expérimentale, Méthodologie de l'anthracologie sur charbonnière pour une approche de la gestion du milieu forestier en Languedoc. Mémoire Maitrise. Environnement et Société. 1992, Université Montpellier II, 115.
Béguier, I., Germain-Vallée, C., Hincker, V., Étude micromorphologique du Chemin Saulnier : apport à l'archéologie des paysages de la Plaine de Caen (Calvados, Basse-Normandie). Norois, 2011, 121–142, 10.4000/norois.3693.
Benatti, A., Bal, M., Allée, P., Bosi, G., Dallai, D., Mercuri, A.M., Charcoal kilns in the northern apennines (Italy): forest exploitation by past societies in mountain areas. Interdisciplinaria Archaeologica - Natural Sciences in Archaeology IX, 2018, 169–178, 10.24916/iansa.2018.2.4.
Bertran, P., Bordes, J.-G., Todisco, D., Vallin, L., Géoarchéologie et taphonomie des vestiges archéologiques : impacts des processus naturels sur les assemblages et méthodes d'analyse. Brugal, J.-P., (eds.) TaphonomieS. Editions des Archives Contemporaines, 2017, Collection Sciences archéologiques, Paris, 125–166.
Blanc-Garidel, F., Wicha, S., Archéologie du bâti et rénovation urbaine. La place de la dendrochronologie. L'exemple de Grasse (Alpes-Maritimes). ARCADE. Approche diachronique et Regards croisés : Archéologie, Dendrochronologie et Environnement. Séminaire inter-laboratoire Maison Méditerranéenne des Sciences de l'Homme (MMSH), Aix-en-Provence, 10-11 avril 2014, Apr 2014, 2019, Aix-en-Provence, France, 139–149 ffhal-02143978f.
Blondel, F., Cabanis, M., Girardclos, O., Paradis-Grenouillet, S., Impact of carbonization on growth rings: dating by dendrochronology experiments on oak charcoals collected from archaeological sites. Quat. Int. 463 (2018), 268–281, 10.1016/j.quaint.2017.03.030.
Bond, J., Medieval charcoal-burning in england. Klápšte, J., Sommer, P., (eds.) Arts and Crafts in Medieval Rural Environment, 2007, Brepols Publishers, Turnhout, 277–294, 10.1484/M.RURALIA-EB.3.1147.
Bonhôte, J., Forges et forêts dans les Pyrénées ariégeoises : pour une histoire de l'environnement. Pyrégraph. Aspet., 1998, 337.
Bonhôte, J., Davasse, B., Dubois, C., Izard, V., Métailié, J.-P., Charcoal Kilns and Environmental History in the Eastern Pyrenees (France). A Methodological Approach. 2002, 219–228 Second international meeting of anthracology, Oct 2000, Paris, France.
Bourquin-Mignot, C., Girardclos, O., Construction d'une longue chronologie de hêtres au Pays-Basque. La forêt d'Iraty et le Petit Âge Glaciaire. Revue géographique des Pyrénées et du Sud-Ouest. Sud-Ouest Eur. 11 (2001), 59–71.
Burri, S., Enquête ethnoarchéologique sur le mode de vie et le savoir-faire des derniers charbonniers de Calabre (Italie) : entre tradition et modernité. Presented at the Cultures, Economies, Sociétés et Environnement du début de la Préhistoire au Moyen-Age : travaux en cours, Actes de la troisième table ronde des jeunes chercheurs en archéologie de la MMSH, Aix-en-Provence, 6 juin 2008, A. Boutet, C. Defrasne, T. Lachenal (dir.) http://www.mmsh.univ-aix.fr/ecoledoctorale/trjca/burri.htm, 2008.
Burri, S., Être charbonnier en Provence à la fin du Moyen Âge. Burri, S., Rouaud, R., (eds.) Charbonnage, Charbonniers, Charbonnières. Confluence de Regards autour d'un artisanat méconnu (Paradis-Grenouillet, S., 2018, 203–214.
Carrari, E., Ampoorter, E., Verheyen, K., Coppi, A., Selvi, F., Former charcoal platforms in Mediterranean forest areas: a hostile microhabitat for the recolonization by woody species. iFor. Biogeosci. For. 10 (2017), 136–144, 10.3832/ifor1701-009.
Cavin, L., Jump, A.S., Highest drought sensitivity and lowest resistance to growth suppression are found in the range core of the tree Fagus sylvatica L. not the equatorial range edge. Global Change Biol. 23 (2017), 362–379, 10.1111/gcb.13366.
Chassinat, E., Forêt domaniale de Suc-et-Sentenac, aménagement. 1892 Inventaire - chap IV - n°33. Archives départementales de l'Ariège. Cote archive: 7P1081. 46p.
Cook, E.R., Kairiukstis, L.A., Methods of Dendrochronology: Applications in the Environmental Sciences. 1990, Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, 394, 10.1007/978-94-015-7879-0.
Davasse, B., Forêts, charbonniers et paysans dans les Pyrénées de l'est du moyen âge á nos jours: une approche géographique de l'histoire de l'environnement. 2000, Geode, Toulouse, 287.
De Oliveira, R.R., Scheel-Ybert, R., A hidden landscape, the paleo-territory of charcoal makers in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. (Paradis-Grenouillet, S., Burri, S., Rouaud, R., (eds.) Charbonnage, Charbonniers, Charbonnières. Confluence de Regards Autour d'un Artisanat Méconnu, 2018, Presses Universitaires de Provence, Aix-en-Provence, 33–38.
De Vries, H., Variation in concentration of radiocarbon with time and location on Earth. Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen. Proceedings, Series B 61 (1958), 94–102.
De Vries, H., Measurement and use of natural radiocarbon. Abelson, P.H., (eds.) Research in Geochemistry, 1959, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 69–89.
Deforce, K., Haneca, K., Tree-ring analysis of archaeological charcoal as a tool to identify past woodland management: the case from a 14th century site from Oudenaarde (Belgium). Quat. Int. 366 (2015), 70–80, 10.1016/j.quaint.2014.05.056.
Deforce, K., Groenewoudt, B., Haneca, K., 2500 years of charcoal production in the Low Countries: the chronology and typology of charcoal kilns and their relation with early iron production. Quaternary International S1040618220306406, 2020, 10.1016/j.quaint.2020.10.020.
Dubois, C., Métailié, J.-P., Izard, V., Archéologie de la forêt charbonnée : questions et méthodes, illustrées par I'exemple du site de Lercoul (Ariège). XVIIè Rencontres Internationales d'archéologie et d'histoire d'Antibes, 1996, 525–540 Antibes, France.
Duhamel Du Monceau, H.-L., Art du charbonnier, ou Manière de faire le charbon de bois. Description des arts et métiers, faits ou approuvés par Messieurs de l'Académie royale des Sciences. Chez Desaint et Saillant. 1761, Librairie, rue Saint Jean de Beauvais, 69.
Dupin, A., Girardclos, O., Fruchart, C., Laplaige, C., Nuninger, L., Dufraisse, A., Gauthier, E., Anthracology of charcoal kilns in the forest of Chailluz (France) as a tool to understand Franche-Comte forestry from the mid-15th to the early 20th century AD. Quat. Int. 458 (2017), 200–213, 10.1016/j.quaint.2017.03.008.
Dupin, A., Sordoillet, D., Fréville, K., Girardclos, O., Gauthier, E., The taphonomic characterization of a charcoal production platform. Contribution of an innovative pair of methods: Raman analysis and micromorphology. J. Archaeol. Sci. 107 (2019), 87–99, 10.1016/j.jas.2019.05.003.
Durand, A., Vaschalde, C., Daide, H., Abbadi, M. el, Le charbonnage en fosse : approche ethnoarchéologique d'une pratique méconnue dans le Rif marocain. Paradis-Grenouillet, S., Burri, S., Rouaud, R., (eds.) Charbonnage, Charbonniers, Charbonnières. Confluence de Regards autour d'un artisanat méconnu, 2018, Presses Universitaires de Provence, Aix-en-Provence, 12–22.
Elmer, W.H., Lattao, C.V., Pignatello, J.J., Active removal of biochar by earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris). Pedobiologia 58 (2015), 1–6, 10.1016/j.pedobi.2014.11.001.
Fabre, L., Gervet, X., Première approche du charbonnage et de l'histoire de la forêt méditerranéenne: l'exemple du canton d'Aniane (Hérault). Bulletin de la Société Botanique de France. Actualités Botaniques 139 (1992), 617–625, 10.1080/01811789.1992.10827134.
Fermé, L.C., Villalba, R., Dendrochronological Study of Charred Wood at the Cerro Pintado Archaeological Site (Patagonia, Argentina). 2011, Saguntum, Valencia, 37–39.
Fouédjeu, L., Saulnier, M., Cunill, R., Buscaino, S., Py-Saragaglia, V., Charcoal Analysis of Kiln Terraces to Reconstruct Practices and Wood Uses' Temporalities for Charcoal Manufacturing Activity ' : the Case of the Bernadouze Forest (Suc-Et-Sentenac, Haut-Vicdessos). Poster. 7th International Anthracology Meeting, Sep 2019. Liverpool, United Kingdom. 2019, 2019 ⟨hal-02331105⟩.
Gebhardt, A., Impact of charcoal production activities on soil profiles: the micromorphological point of view. ArcheoSciences. Revue d'archéométrie, 2007, 127–136, 10.4000/archeosciences.833.
Gerasimova, M., Lebedeva-Verba, M., Topsoils – mollic, takyric and yermic horizons. Interpretation of Micromorphological Features of Soils and Regoliths, 2010, Elsevier, 351–368, 10.1016/B978-0-444-53156-8.00016-7.
Haaland, M.M., Czechowski, M., Carpentier, F., Lejay, M., Vandermeulen, B., Documenting archaeological thin sections in high-resolution: a comparison of methods and discussion of applications. Geoarchaeology 34 (2019), 100–114, 10.1002/gea.21706.
Hanus, P., Charbonnier, fais fumer! Chronique ethnographique d'une fête du Vercors. Burri, S., Rouaud, R., (eds.) Charbonnage, Charbonniers, Charbonnières. Confluence de Regards autour d'un artisanat méconnu (Paradis-Grenouillet, S., 2018, 49–60.
Hart, J.L., Van De Gevel, S.L., Mann, D.F., Clatterbuck, W.K., Legacy of charcoaling in a western highland rim forest in Tennessee. Am. Midl. Nat., 159, 2008, 238, 10.1674/0003-0031(2008)159[238:LOCIAW]2.0.CO;2.
Hirsch, F., Raab, T., Ouimet, W., Dethier, D., Schneider, A., Raab, A., Soils on historic charcoal hearths: terminology and chemical properties. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 81 (2017), 1427–1435, 10.2136/sssaj2017.02.0067.
Izard, V., Historique et dynamique du paysage forestier de la vallée de Suc et Sentenac (Vicdessos, Ariège). 1989, Mémoire de maîtrise, Université Toulouse II, 123.
Izard, V., L'art du charbonnier: contributions ethno-botanique et géographico-historique à l’étude des paysages métallurgiques d'après l'anthracoanalyse des charbonnières. Bulletin de la Société Botanique de France. Actualités Botaniques 139 (1992), 587–596, 10.1080/01811789.1992.10827131.
Izard, V., Les montagnes du fer : éco-histoire de la métallurgie et des forêts dans les Pyrénées méditerranéennes (de l'Antiquité à nos jours) : pour une histoire de l'environnement (thesis). 1999, 752 Toulouse 2 http://www.theses.fr.
Jalut, G., Delibrias, G., Dagnac, J., Mardones, M., Bouhours, M., A palaeoecological approach to the last 21 000 years in the pyrenees: the peat bog of Freychinede (alt. 1350 m, Ariege, South France). Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 40 (1982), 321–359, 10.1016/0031-0182(82)90033-5.
Karimi Moayed, N., Vandenberghe, D.A.G., Deforce, K., Bastiaens, J., Ghyselbrecht, E., Debeer, A.-E., De Smedt, P., De Clercq, W., De Grave, J., Bypassing the Suess-effect: age determination of charcoal kiln remains using OSL dating. J. Archaeol. Sci., 120, 2020, 105176, 10.1016/j.jas.2020.105176.
Knapp, H., Nelle, O., Kirleis, W., Charcoal usage in medieval and modern times in the Harz Mountains Area, Central Germany: wood selection and fast overexploitation of the woodlands. Quaternary International, Charcoal: resource and ubiquitous proxy 366 (2015), 51–69, 10.1016/j.quaint.2015.01.053.
Kooistra, M.J., Pulleman, M.M., Features related to faunal activity. Interpretation of Micromorphological Features of Soils and Regoliths, 2010, Elsevier, 397–418, 10.1016/B978-0-444-53156-8.00018-0.
Krebs, P., Pezzatti, G.B., Stocker, M., Bürgi, M., Conedera, M., The selection of suitable sites for traditional charcoal production: ideas and practice in southern Switzerland. J. Hist. Geogr. 57 (2017), 1–16, 10.1016/j.jhg.2017.04.002.
Kuniholm, P.I., How to Collect Archaeological Wood and Charcoal for Dendrochronological Analysis. The Malcolm and Carolyn Wiener Laboratory for Aegean and Near Eastern Dendrochronology. 2016, Cornell Univ., Ithaca, New York www.arts.cornell.edu/dendr/howto.html. (Accessed 5 March 1996)
Lambert, G.-N., Bernard, V., Dupouey, J.-L., Fraiture, P., Gassman, P., Girardclos, O., Lebourgeois, F., Ledigol, Y., Tegel, W., Dendrochronologie et dendroclimatologie du chêne en France, Questions posées par le transfert de données de bois historiques vers la dendroclimatologie. Astrade, L., Miramont, C., (eds.) Actes Du Colloque Panorama de La Dendrochronologie En France, 8, 9 et 10 Octobre 2009, Digne-Les-Bains, Alpes de Haute Provence, Collection Edytem, 11, 2010, 205–216.
Langohr, R., Creusement, érosion et comblement des fossés; l'approche des sciences de la terre. Rev. Archeol. Picardie 1 (2000), 57–65, 10.3406/pica.2000.2228.
Larcher, G., Les charbonniers à Paimpont : contribution à l'histoire d'une commune. 1986, Le Châtenay - Journal de l'Association des Amis du Moulin du Châtenay, 64.
Latte, N., Debruxelles, J., Sohier, C., Degré, A., Claessens, H., La dendroécologie: un outil pour affiner nos connaissances sur l'autoécologie des essences forestières. 116, 2012, 3–17.
Ludemann, T., Past fuel wood exploitation and natural forest vegetation in the Black Forest, the Vosges and neighbouring regions in western Central Europe. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 291 (2010), 154–165, 10.1016/j.palaeo.2009.09.013.
Ludemann, T., Nelle, O., Die Wälder am Schauinsland und ihre Nutzung durch Bergbau und Köhlerei, Schriftenreihe Freiburger forstliche Forschung. Forstliche Versuchs- und Forschungsanst. 2002, Baden-Württemberg, Freiburg (Breisgau).
Lugli, F., Pracchia, S., Modelli e finalità nello studio della produzione di carbone di legna in archeologia, XVIII, 1995, Origini, Roma, 425–479 1995.
Marié de L'Isle, E.-B., Manuel complet des marchands de bois et de charbons, ou Traité de ce commerce en général. 1835, La librairie encyclopédique de Roret, Paris.
Montanari, C., Prono, P., Scipioni, S., The study of charcoal-burning sites in the Apennine mountains of Liguria (NW Italy) as a tool for forest history. Agnoletti, M., Anderson, S., (eds.) Methods and Approaches in Forest History. Papers Selected from a Conference Held in Florence, Italy in 1998, 2000, CABI, Wallingford, 79–91, 10.1079/9780851994208.0079.
Musset, D., Charbonniers, le métier du diable ? Le Monde alpin et rhodanien. Revue régionale d'ethnologie 28 (2000), 133–150, 10.3406/mar.2000.1713.
Nelle, O., Charcoal burning remains and forest stand structure - examples from the Black Forest (south-west Germany) and the Bavarian Forest (south-east Germany). Thiébault, S., (eds.) Charcoal Analysis, Methodological Approaches, Palaeoecological Studies and Wood Uses, Proceeding of the Second International Meeting of Anthracology (Paris, September 2000), Oxford, Archaeopress: 201-207, 2002, BAR International Series 1063), 201–207.
Nelle, O., Woodland history of the last 500 years revealed by anthracological studies of charcoal kiln sites in the Bavarian Forest, Germany. Phytocoenologia 33 (2003), 667–682, 10.1127/0340-269X/2003/0033-0667.
Nicolescu, V.-N., Carvalho, J., Hochbichler, E., Bruckman, V.J., Piqué, M., Hernea, C., Viana, H., Štochlová, P., Ertekin, M., Đodan, M., Dubravac, T., Vandekerkhove, K., Kofman, P.D., Rossney, D., Unrau, A., Silvicultural guidelines for European coppice forests. Unrau, A., Becker, G., Spinelli, R., Lazdina, D., Magagnotti, N., Nicolescu, V.N., Buckley, P., Bartlett, D., Kofman, P.D., (eds.) Coppice Forests in Europe (Pp. 46-63). Freiburg I. Br., Germany, 2018, Albert Ludwig University of Freiburg. COST Action PF1301 EuroCoppice. Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Freiburg, 46–63.
Nicosia, C., Stoops, G., (eds.) Archaeological Soil and Sediment Micromorphology, 2017, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Chichester, UK, 10.1002/9781118941065.
Noiriel, Projet de révision d'aménagement (1966-1980) de la forêt de Suc-et-Sentenac (Rapport de présentation. Eaux et forêts - série, 12, 1965, n°28 (double) - J108.227. Archive départementale de l'Ariège. 56p.
Paradis-Grenouillet, S., Etudier les forêts métallurgiques : analyses dendro-anthracologiques et approches géohistoriques : exemple des forêts du mont Lozère et du Périgord-Limousin. 2012, 452.
Paradis-Grenouillet, S., Allée, P., Vives, G.S., Ploquin, A., Sustainable management of metallurgical forest on mont lozère (France) during the early middle ages. Environ. Archaeol. 20 (2015), 168–183, 10.1179/1749631414Y.0000000050.
Paradis-Grenouillet, S., Burri, S., Rouaud, R., (eds.) Charbonnage, charbonniers, charbonnières: confluence de regards autour d'un artisanat méconnu, 2018, Presses universitaires de Provence, Aix-en-Provence, 236.
Patzlaff, R.G., Ribeiro de Oliveira, R., Araùjo, D.S.D. de, Scheel-Ybert, R., Historical charcoal kilns. A method to compare the surrounding vegetation with the anthracological data in forested slopes of Rio de Janeiro Estate, RJ, Brazil. Burri, S., Rouaud, R., (eds.) Charbonnage, Charbonniers, Charbonnières. Confluence de Regards autour d'un artisanat méconnu (Paradis-Grenouillet, S., 2018, Presses Universitaires de Provence, Aix-en-Provence, 197–202.
Pescini, V., Montanari, C.A., Moreno, D.T., Multi-proxy record of environmental changes and past land use practices in a Mediterranean landscape: the Punta Mesco cape (Liguria - Italy) between the 15th and 20th century. Quaternary International, Anthracology: Local to Global Significance of Charcoal Science - Part III 463 (2018), 376–390, 10.1016/j.quaint.2017.03.060.
Pichler, T., Nicolussi, K., Goldenberg, G., Dendrochronological dating of charcoal originating from an Early Iron Age fire-set pit in the mining area of Schwaz/Brixlegg (Tyrol, Austria). Anreiter, P., Goldenberg, G., Hanke, K., Krause, R., Leitner, W., Mathis, F., Nicolussi, K., Oeggl, K., Pernicka, E., Prast, M., Schibler, J., Schneider, I., Stadler, H., Stöllner, T., Tomedi, G., Tropper, P., (eds.) Mining in European History e Proceedings of the 1st Mining in European History-Conference of the SFB HiMAT, 12.E15. November 2009, Innsbruck. IUP, 2010, 233–237 Innsbruck.
Pichler, T., Nicolussi, K., Goldenberg, G., Hanke, K., Kovács, K., Thurner, A., Charcoal from a prehistoric copper mine in the Austrian Alps: dendrochronological and dendrological data, demand for wood and forest utilisation. J. Archaeol. Sci. 40 (2013), 992–1002, 10.1016/j.jas.2012.09.008.
Py-Saragaglia, V., Cunill Artigas, R., Métailié, J.-P., Ancel, B., Baron, S., Paradis-Grenouillet, S., Lerigoleur, E., Badache, N., Barcet, H., Galop, D., Late Holocene history of woodland dynamics and wood use in an ancient mining area of the Pyrenees (Ariège, France). Quat. Int. 458 (2017), 141–157, 10.1016/j.quaint.2017.01.012.
Py-Saragaglia, V., Saulnier, M., Cunill Artigas, R., Fouédjeu, L., Paradis-Grenouillet, S., Buscaino, S., Galop, D., Chapter 10: long-term forest evolution and woodland uses in an ancient charcoal-production forest of the eastern French Pyrenees: an interdisciplinary approach at high spatio-temporal resolution. Aspe, C., Burri, S., Paradis-Grenouillet, S., (eds.) Into the Woods. Overlapping Perspectives on the History of Ancient Forests, 2018 Quae.
Raab, A., Takla, M., Raab, T., Nicolay, A., Schneider, A., Rösler, H., Heußner, K.-U., Bönisch, E., Pre-industrial charcoal production in Lower Lusatia (Brandenburg, Germany): detection and evaluation of a large charcoal-burning field by combining archaeological studies, GIS-based analyses of shaded-relief maps and dendrochronological age determination. Quat. Int. 367 (2015), 111–122, 10.1016/j.quaint.2014.09.041.
Raab, T., Hirsch, F., Ouimet, W., Johnson, K.M., Dethier, D., Raab, A., Architecture of relict charcoal hearths in northwestern Connecticut, USA: Raab et al. Geoarchaeology 32 (2017), 502–510, 10.1002/gea.21614.
Rinn, F., TSAP-win User Reference. 2003, RinnTech, Heidelberg Version 0.53.
Rochebrunel, Forêt domaniale de Suc-et-Sentenac, révision d'aménagement, service des aménagements et du reboisement (Inventaire chpa IV n°77, 26p, 1920, Archive départementale de l'Ariège.
Rouaud, R., Les forêts de pente de la haute vallée de la Dordogne : enjeux écologiques et énergétiques d'une ancienne forêt charbonnée (Auvergne, Limousin, France) (thesis). 2013.
Rouaud, R., Allée, P., Les forêts de pente de la haute vallée de la Dordogne: retour sur le passée d'une forêt charbonnée. Burri, S., Rouaud, R., (eds.) Charbonnage, Charbonniers, Charbonnières. Confluence de Regards autour d'un artisanat méconnu (Paradis-Grenouillet, S., 2018, 177–188.
Salvador, J., Simples notes sur l'aménagement et l'exploitation des forêts pyrénéennes françaises. Rev. Geogr. Pyrenees Sud-Ouest 1 (1930), 58–74, 10.3406/rgpso.1930.3944.
Samojlik, T., Rotherham, I.D., Jedrzejewska, B., Quantifying historic human impacts on forest environments: a case study in bialowieza forest, Poland. Environ. Hist. 18 (2013), 576–602, 10.1093/envhis/emt039.
Saulnier, M., Cunill Artigas, R., Fouédjeu, L., Buscaino, S., Métailié, J.-P., Galop, D., Py-Saragaglia, V., A study of late Holocene local vegetation dynamics and responses to land use changes in an ancient charcoal making woodland in the central Pyrenees (Ariège, France), using pedoanthracology. Veg. Hist. Archaeobotany, 2019, 10.1007/s00334-019-00740-7.
Schmidt, M., Mölder, A., Schönfelder, E., Engel, F., Fortmann-Valtink, W., Charcoal kiln sites, associated landscape attributes and historic forest conditions: DTM-based investigations in Hesse (Germany). Forest Ecosystems, 3, 2016, 8, 10.1186/s40663-016-0067-6.
Schweingruber, F.H., Anatomie microscopique du bois. Eidgenössische Anstalt für das forstliche Versuchswesen. 1978.
Scipioni, S., Dati antracologici da due pratiche attuali : la produzione del carbone vegetale nelle alte valli Scrivia e Trebbia (Appennino Ligure). Archeologia Postmedievale : società, ambiente, produzione, 4, 2002, 2000, 10.1400/210836.
Stokes, M.A., Smiley, T.L., An Introduction to Tree-Ring Dating, Nachdr, 1996, University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 73.
Stoops, G., Guidelines for Analysis and Description of Soil and Regolith Thin Sections. 2003, Soil Science Soc. of America, Madison, 184.
Stoops, G., Marcelino, V., Mees, F., Interpretation of Micromorphological Features of Soils and Regoliths. 2010, 752.
Strachan, S., Biondi, F., Lindström, S.G., McQueen, R., Wigand, P.E., Application of dendrochronology to historical charcoal-production sites in the great basin, United States. Hist. Archaeol. 47 (2013), 103–119, 10.1007/BF03377126.
Strachan, S.D., Dendrochronological Dating of Historic Charcoal Oven Platforms in the Great Basin, North America (Thesis). (Thesis), 2011, University of Nevada, Reno, 59.
Stuiver, M., Variations in radiocarbon concentration and sunspot activity. J. Geophys. Res. 66 (1961), 273–276, 10.1029/JZ066i001p00273.
Tans, P.P., De Jong, A.F.M., Mook, W.G., Natural atmospheric 14C variation and the Suess effect. Nature 280 (1979), 826–828, 10.1038/280826a0.
Tolksdorf, J.F., Elburg, R., Schröder, F., Knapp, H., Herbig, C., Westphal, T., Schneider, B., Fülling, A., Hemker, C., Forest exploitation for charcoal production and timber since the 12th century in an intact medieval mining site in the Niederpöbel Valley (Erzgebirge, Eastern Germany). J. Archaeol. Sci.: Report 4 (2015), 487–500, 10.1016/j.jasrep.2015.10.018.
Trenet, Y., Aulus-les-Bains. Notice, Carte géologique de la France 1/50000. 1997, BRGM.
Vernet, J.L., Guide d'identification des charbons de bois préhistoriques et récents: sud-ouest de l'Europe : France, péninsule ibérique, et îles Canaries. 2001, CNRS, Paris.
Vliet-Lanoë, B.V., Frost action. Interpretation of Micromorphological Features of Soils and Regoliths, 2010, Elsevier, 81–108, 10.1016/B978-0-444-53156-8.00006-4.
