Contamination levels and distribution of persistent and non-persistent pollutants in paired hair, urine and serum samples from a Belgian non-occupationally exposed population. - 2025
Contamination levels and distribution of persistent and non-persistent pollutants in paired hair, urine and serum samples from a Belgian non-occupationally exposed population.
Contamination levels and distribution of persistent and non-persistent pollutants in paired hair urine and serum samples from a Belgian non-occupatio.pdf
[en] Designing ideal human biomonitoring studies involves the selection of reliable markers of exposure in adequate biological matrix. Besides conventional matrices such as blood or urine, hair has been increasingly investigated as a promising noninvasive alternative. However, understanding the pollutant distribution between differing biological compartments is essential for reliable interpretation of data collected. Therefore, the contamination levels and the distribution of some persistent (8 perfluoroalkyl substances - PFAS - and 6 polychlorobiphenyls - PCBs) and non-persistent pollutants (2 bisphenols and 3 parabens) were investigated in paired serum and hair samples, or paired spot urine and hair samples obtained from 30 Belgian non-occupationally exposed individuals. The levels measured were close to those reported in recent larger-scale studies. PFAS, PCB and bisphenol distributions largely differed depending upon the matrix and within the same chemical family depending upon the congener. The correlation and agreement between pollutant levels in differing matrices demonstrated that the information provided is comparable only for highly chlorinated PCBs and parabens, while the classification of exposure for bisphenols was substantially different according to the matrix. The selection of the human matrix thus remains complex and might markedly bias the results obtained, especially when assessing the health risk related to chemical exposure.
Disciplines :
Pharmacy, pharmacology & toxicology
Author, co-author :
Claessens, Julien ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Unités de recherche interfacultaires > Centre Interdisciplinaire de Recherche sur le Médicament (CIRM)
Dufour, Patrice ; Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Liège - CHU > > Service de toxicologie clinique, médicolégale, environnementale et en entreprise
Dardenne, Nadia ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département des sciences de la santé publique
Charlier, Corinne ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département de pharmacie > Chimie toxicologique
Pirard, Catherine ; Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Liège - CHU > > Service de toxicologie clinique, médicolégale, environnementale et en entreprise
Language :
English
Title :
Contamination levels and distribution of persistent and non-persistent pollutants in paired hair, urine and serum samples from a Belgian non-occupationally exposed population.
Publication date :
16 January 2025
Journal title :
Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. Part A
Abbas, S., H., Greige-Gerges, N., Karam, M. H., Piet, P., Netter, and J., Magdalou. 2010. “Metabolism of Parabens (4-Hydroxybenzoic Acid Esters) by Hepatic Esterases and UDP-Glucuronosyltransferases in Man.” Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics25 (6): 568–577. https://doi.org/10.2133/dmpk.dmpk-10-rg-013.
Alves, A., A., Kucharska, C., Erratico, F., Xu, E., Den Hond, G., Koppen, G., Vanermen, A., Covaci, and S., Voorspoels. 2014. “Human Biomonitoring of Emerging Pollutants Through Non-Invasive Matrices: State of the Art and Future Potential.” Analytical & Bioanalytical Chemistry406 (17): 4063–4088. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-014-7748-1.
Appenzeller, B. M. R., 2015. “Hair Analysis for the Biomonitoring of Human Exposure to Inorganic Pollutants.” In Hair Analysis in Clinical and Forensic Toxicology, Elsevier Inc. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-801700-5.00007-8.
Appenzeller, B. M. R., and A. M., Tsatsakis. 2012. “Hair Analysis for Biomonitoring of Environmental and Occupational Exposure to Organic Pollutants: State of the Art, Critical Review and Future Needs.” Toxicology Letters210 (2): 119–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2011.10.021.
Balestier, A., C., Fillol, J., Gane, A., Oleko, A., Saoudi, and A., Zeghnoun. 2021. “Imprégnation de la population française chez les adultes par les PCB, dioxines et furanes Programme national de biosurveillance, Esteban 2014-2016.” Saint-Maurice: Santé publique France, 148 p.www.santepubliquefrance.fr.
Barmpas, M., E., Vakonaki, M., Tzatzarakis, S., Sifakis, A., Alegakis, T., Grigoriadis, D. B., Sodré, G., Daskalakis, A., Antsaklis, and A., Tsatsakis. 2020. “Organochlorine pollutants’ Levels in Hair, Amniotic Fluid and Serum Samples of Pregnant Women in Greece. A Cohort Study.” Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology73:103279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2019.103279.
Braun, J. M., K. W., Smith, P. L., Williams, A. M., Calafat, K., Berry, S., Ehrlich, and R., Hauser. 2012. “Variability of Urinary Phthalate Metabolite and Bisphenol a Concentrations Before and During Pregnancy.” Environmental Health Perspectives120 (5): 739–745. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1104139.
Bro, R., and A. K., Smilde. 2003. “Centering and Scaling in Component Analysis.” Journal of Chemometrics17 (1): 16–33. https://doi.org/10.1002/cem.773.
Calafat, A. M., M. P., Longnecker, M. K., Holger, H. S., Shanna, H., Russ, R. G., Lynn, P. L., Bruce, et al. 2016. “Response to “Comment on ‘Optimal Exposure Biomarkers for Nonpersistent Chemicals in Environmental Epidemiology’”.” Environmental Health Perspectives124 (4): A66. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1611282.
Cao, X., R., Qin, S., Zhang, W., Luo, J., Qin, X., Yan, F., Cai, Q., Liao, Y., Yu, and J., Zheng. 2024. “Bisphenol Pollutants Bind with Human Hair Keratin: Combining Evidence from Fluorescence Spectroscopy and Molecular Docking.” Science of the Total Environment957:177533. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.177533.
Carnevale, A., K., Aleksa, C. G., Goodyer, and G., Koren. 2014. “Investigating the Use of Hair to Assess Polybrominated Diphenyl Ether Exposure Retrospectively.” Therapeutic Drug Monitoring36 (2): 244–251. https://doi.org/10.1097/FTD.0b013e3182a69a8b.
Chata, C. M., E., Hardy, N., Grova, and B. M. R., Appenzeller. 2016. “Influence of Pesticide Physicochemical Properties on the Association Between Plasma and Hair Concentration.” Analytical & Bioanalytical Chemistry408 (13): 3601–3612. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-016-9442-y.
Cirello, V., M., Lugaresi, C., Moneta, P., Dufour, A., Manzo, E., Carbone, C., Colombo, L., Fugazzola, C., Charlier, and C., Pirard. 2024. “Thyroid Cancer and Endocrine Disruptive Chemicals: A Case–Control Study on Per-Fluoroalkyl Substances and Other Persistent Organic Pollutants.” European Thyroid Journal13 (3): e230192. https://doi.org/10.1530/ETJ-23-0192.
Claessens, J., C., Pirard, and C., Charlier. 2022. “Determination of Contamination Levels for Multiple Endocrine Disruptors in Hair from a Non-Occupationally Exposed Population Living in Liege (Belgium).” Science of the Total Environment815:152734. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152734.
Colles, A., L., Bruckers, E., Den Hond, E., Govarts, B., Morrens, T., Schettgen, J., Buekers, et al. 2020. “Perfluorinated Substances in the Flemish Population (Belgium): Levels and Determinants of Variability in Exposure.” Chemosphere242:125250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125250.
Cone, E. J., 1996. “Mechanisms of Drug Incorporation into Hair.” Therapeutic Drug Monitoring18 (4): 438–443. https://doi.org/10.1097/00007691-199608000-00022.
Dekant, W., and W., Volkel. 2008. “Human Exposure to Bisphenol a by Biomonitoring: Methods, Results and Assessment of Environmental Exposures.” Toxicology & Applied Pharmacology228 (1): 114–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.taap.2007.12.008.
De Silva, A. O., J. M., Armitage, T. A., Bruton, C., Dassuncao, W., Heiger-Bernays, X. C., Hu, A., Kärrman, et al. 2021. “PFAS Exposure Pathways for Humans and Wildlife: A Synthesis of Current Knowledge and Key Gaps in Understanding.” Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry40 (3): 631–657. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.4935.
Dewalque, L., C., Pirard, N., Dubois, and C., Charlier. 2014. “Simultaneous Determination of Some Phthalate Metabolites, Parabens and Benzophenone-3 in Urine by Ultra-High Pressure Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry.” Journal of Chromatography B949-950:37–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchromb.2014.01.002.
Dewalque, L., C. N., Pirard, and C., Charlier. 2014. “Measurement of Urinary Biomarkers of Parabens, Benzophenone-3, and Phthalates in a Belgian Population.” Biomed Research International2014:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/649314.
Dewalque, L., C., Pirard, S., Vandepaer, and C., Charlier. 2015. “Temporal Variability of Urinary Concentrations of Phthalate Metabolites, Parabens and Benzophenone-3 in a Belgian Adult Population.” Environmental Research142:414–423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2015.07.015.
Dufour, P., C., Pirard, M. C., Seghaye, and C., Charlier. 2018. “Association Between Organohalogenated Pollutants in Cord Blood and Thyroid Function in Newborns and Mothers from Belgian Population.” Environmental Pollution238:389–396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.03.058.
Engel, L. S., J. P., Buckley, G., Yang, L. M., Liao, J., Satagopan, A. M., Calafat, C. E., Matthews, et al. 2014. “Predictors and Variability of Repeat Measurements of Urinary Phenols and Parabens in a Cohort of Shanghai Women and Men.” Environmental Health Perspectives122 (7): 733–740. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1306830.
EU. 1996. “Council Directive 96/59/EC of 16 September 1996 on the Disposal of Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Polychlorinated Terphenyls (PCB/PCT).”
Faÿs, F., E. M., Hardy, P., Palazzi, S., Haan, C., Beausoleil, and B. M. R., Appenzeller. 2021. “Biomonitoring of Fast-Elimination Endocrine Disruptors–Results from a 6-Month Follow Up on Human Volunteers with Repeated Urine and Hair Collection.” Science of the Total Environment778:146330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146330.
Faÿs, F., P., Palazzi, F., Zeman, E. M., Hardy, C., Schaeffer, C., Rousselle, C., Beausoleil, and B. M. R., Appenzeller. 2023. “Incorporation of Fast-Elimination Chemicals in Hair is Governed by Pharmacokinetics–Implications for Exposure Assessment.” Environmental Science & Technology57 (19): 7336–7345. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.2c06777.
Fillol, C., A., Oleko, A., Saoudi, A., Zeghnoun, A., Balicco, J., Gane, L., Rambaud, et al. 2021. “Exposure of the French Population to Bisphenols, Phthalates, Parabens, Glycol Ethers, Brominated Flame Retardants, and Perfluorinated Compounds in 2014–2016: Results from the Esteban Study.” Environment International147:106340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.106340.
Fischer, F. C., S., Ludtke, C., Thackray, H. M., Pickard, F., Haque, C., Dassuncao, S., Endo, L., Schaider, and E. M., Sunderland. 2024. “Binding of Per-And Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) to Serum Proteins: Implications for Toxicokinetics in Humans.” Environmental Science & Technology58 (2): 1055–1063. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.3c07415.
Genuis, S. J., S., Beesoon, and D., Birkholz. 2013. “Biomonitoring and Elimination of Perfluorinated Compounds and Polychlorinated Biphenyls Through Perspiration: Blood, Urine, and Sweat Study.” ISRN Toxicology2013:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/483832.
Glüge, J., M., Scheringer, I. T., Cousins, J. C., DeWitt, G., Goldenman, D., Herzke, R., Lohmann, C. A., Ng, X., Trier, and Z., Wang. 2020. “An Overview of the Uses of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS).” Environmental Science Processes & Impacts22 (12): 2345–2373. https://doi.org/10.1039/d0em00291g.
Göckener, B., T., Weber, H., Rüdel, M., Bücking, and M., Kolossa-Gehring. 2020. “Human Biomonitoring of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in German Blood Plasma Samples from 1982 to 2019.” Environment International145:106123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.106123.
Hardy, E. M., C., Dereumeaux, L., Guldner, O., Briand, S., Vandentorren, A., Oleko, C., Zaros, and B. M. R., Appenzeller. 2021. “Hair versus Urine for the Biomonitoring of Pesticide Exposure: Results from a Pilot Cohort Study on Pregnant Women.” Environment International152:106481. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2021.106481.
Hernández, A. F., D., Lozano-Paniagua, B., González-Alzaga, M. P., Kavvalakis, M. N., Tzatzarakis, I., López-Flores, C., Aguilar-Garduño, R. A., Caparros-Gonzalez, A. M., Tsatsakis, and M., Lacasaña. 2019. “Biomonitoring of Common Organophosphate Metabolites in Hair and Urine of Children from an Agricultural Community.” Environment International131:104997. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.104997.
Hsu, J.-F., W., Chih-Wei Chang, W.-Y., Ho, and P.-C., Liao. 2022. “Exploration of Long-Term Exposure Markers for Phthalate Esters in Human Hair Using Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry.” Analytica Chimica Acta1200:339610. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2022.339610.
Iglesias-González, A., E. M., Hardy, and B. M. R., Appenzeller. 2020. “Cumulative Exposure to Organic Pollutants of French Children Assessed by Hair Analysis.” Environment International134:105332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.105332.
Janjua, N. R., H., Frederiksen, N. E., Skakkebæk, H. C., Wulf, and A. M., Andersson. 2008. “Urinary Excretion of Phthalates and Paraben After Repeated Whole-Body Topical Application in Humans.” International Journal of Andrology31 (2): 118–130. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2605.2007.00841.x.
Jian, J. M., D., Chen, F.-J., Han, Y., Guo, L., Zeng, X., Lu, and F., Wang. 2018. “A Short Review on Human Exposure to and Tissue Distribution of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs).” Science of the Total Environment636:1058–1069. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.04.380.
Junaid, M., M., Sultan, S., Liu, N., Hamid, Q., Yue, D. S., Pei, J., Wang, and B. M. R., Appenzeller. 2024. “A Meta-Analysis Highlighting the Increasing Relevance of the Hair Matrix in Exposure Assessment to Organic Pollutants.” Science of the Total Environment917:170535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170535.
Kim, D. H., J. H., Lee, and J. E., Oh. 2019. “Perfluoroalkyl Acids in Paired Serum, Urine, and Hair Samples: Correlations with Demographic Factors and Dietary Habits.” Environmental Pollution248:175–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.02.017.
Knutsen, H. K., J., Alexander, L., Barregård, M., Bignami, B., Brüschweiler, S., Ceccatelli, B., Cottrill, et al. 2018. “Risk to Human Health Related to the Presence of Perfluorooctane Sulfonic Acid and Perfluorooctanoic Acid in Food.” EFSA Journal16 (12). https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2018.5194.
Koo, T. K., and M. Y., Li. 2016. “A Guideline of Selecting and Reporting Intraclass Correlation Coefficients for Reliability Research.” Journal of Chiropractic Medicine15 (2): 155–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcm.2016.02.012.
LaKind, J. S., F., Idri, D. Q., Naiman, and M. A., Verner. 2019. “Biomonitoring and Nonpersistent Chemicals—Understanding and Addressing Variability and Exposure Misclassification.” Current Environmental Health Reports6 (1): 16–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-019-0227-2.
Lallmahomed, A., F., Mercier, N., Costet, C., Fillol, N., Bonvallot, and B., Le Bot. 2024. “Characterization of Organic Contaminants in Hair for Biomonitoring Purposes.” Environment International183:108419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2024.108419.
Lassen, T. H., H., Frederiksen, T. K., Jensen, J. H., Petersen, K. M., Main, N. E., Skakkebæk, N., Jørgensen, et al. 2013. “Temporal Variability in Urinary Excretion of Bisphenol a and Seven Other Phenols in Spot, Morning, and 24-H Urine Samples.” Environmental Research126:164–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2013.07.001.
Li, J., F., Guo, Y., Wang, J., Zhang, Y., Zhong, Y., Zhao, and Y., Wu. 2013. “Can Nail, Hair and Urine Be Used for Biomonitoring of Human Exposure to Perfluorooctane Sulfonate and Perfluorooctanoic Acid?” Environment International53:47–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2012.12.002.
Li, N., G.-G., Ying, H., Hong, E., Po Keung Tsang, and W.-J., Deng. 2021. “Plasticizer Contamination in the Urine and Hair of Preschool Children, Airborne Particles in Kindergartens, and Drinking Water in Hong Kong.” Environmental Pollution271:116394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.116394.
Liu, B., R., Zhang, H., Zhang, Y., Yu, D., Yao, and S., Yin. 2020. “Levels of Perfluoroalkyl Acids (PFAAs) in Human Serum, Hair and Nails in Guangdong Province, China: Implications for Exploring the Ideal Bio-Indicator.” Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology79 (2): 184–194. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-020-00743-w.
Ma, Y., H., Liu, J., Wu, L., Yuan, Y., Wang, X., Du, R., Wang, et al. 2019. “The Adverse Health Effects of Bisphenol a and Related Toxicity Mechanisms.” Environmental Research176:108575. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2019.108575.
Martín, J., J. L., Santos, I., Aparicio, and E., Alonso. 2019. “Exposure Assessment to Parabens, Bisphenol a and Perfluoroalkyl Compounds in Children, Women and Men by Hair Analysis.” Science of the Total Environment695:133864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.133864.
McHugh, M. L., 2012. “Lessons in Biostatistics Interrater Reliability: The Kappa Statistic.” Biochemia Medica22:276–282. https://doi.org/10.11613/BM.2012.031.
Naidu, R., B., Biswas, I. R., Willett, J., Cribb, B., Kumar Singh, C., Paul Nathanail, F., Coulon, et al. 2021. “Chemical Pollution: A Growing Peril and Potential Catastrophic Risk to Humanity.” Environment International156:106616. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2021.106616.
Peng, F. J., C., Emond, E. M., Hardy, N., Sauvageot, A., Alkerwi, M. L., Lair, and B. M. R., Appenzeller. 2021. “Population-Based Biomonitoring of Exposure to Persistent and Non-Persistent Organic Pollutants in the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg: Results from Hair Analysis.” Environment International153:106526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2021.106526.
Peng, F. J., E. M., Hardy, R., Béranger, S., Mezzache, N., Bourokba, P., Bastien, J., Li, et al. 2020. “Human Exposure to PCBs, PBDEs and Bisphenols Revealed by Hair Analysis: A Comparison Between Two Adult Female Populations in China and France.” Environmental Pollution267:115425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115425.
Philippat, C., D., Bennett, A. M., Calafat, and I. H., Picciotto. 2015. “Exposure to Select Phthalates and Phenols Through Use of Personal Care Products Among Californian Adults and Their Children.” Environmental Research140:369–376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2015.04.009.
Pirard, C., and C., Charlier. 2022. “Urinary Levels of Parabens, Phthalate Metabolites, Bisphenol a and Plasticizer Alternatives in a Belgian Population: Time Trend or Impact of an Awareness Campaign?” Environmental Research214:113852. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.113852.
Pirard, C., S., Compere, K., Firquet, and C., Charlier. 2018. “The Current Environmental Levels of Endocrine Disruptors (Mercury, Cadmium, Organochlorine Pesticides and PCBs) in a Belgian Adult Population and Their Predictors of Exposure.” International Journal of Hygiene & Environmental Health221 (2): 211–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJHEH.2017.10.010.
Pirard, C., P., Dufour, and C., Charlier. 2020. “Background Contamination of Perfluoralkyl Substances in a Belgian General Population.” Toxicology Letters333:13–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2020.07.015.
Roggeman, M., C., Gys, A., Klimowska, M., Bastiaensen, B., Wielgomas, A. B., Yu, and A., Covaci. 2022. “Reviewing the Variability in Urinary Concentrations of Non-Persistent Organic Chemicals: Evaluation Across Classes, Sampling Strategies and Dilution Corrections.” Environmental Research215:114332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.114332.
Sanchis, Y., C., Coscollà, F., Corpas-Burgos, M., Vento, M., Gormaz, and V., Yusà. 2020. “Biomonitoring of Bisphenols A, F, S and Parabens in Urine of Breastfeeding Mothers: Exposure and Risk Assessment.” Environmental Research185:109481. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.109481.
Schettgen, T., A., Alt, A., Esser, and T., Kraus. 2015. “Current Data on the Background Burden to the Persistent Organochlorine Pollutants HCB, p,p′-DDE as Well as PCB 138, PCB 153 and PCB 180 in Plasma of the General Population in Germany.” International Journal of Hygiene & Environmental Health218 (4): 380–385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2015.02.006.
Schramm, K. W., 2008. “Hair-Biomonitoring of Organic Pollutants.” Chemosphere72 (8): 1103–1111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2008.04.017.
Shilnikova, N., F., Momoli, N., Karyakina, and D., Krewski. 2025. “Review of Non–Invasive Biomarkers as a Tool for Exposure Characterization in Human Health Risk Assessments.” Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part B28 (2): 122–150. https://doi.org/10.1080/10937404.2024.2428206.
Soni, M. G., I. G., Carabin, and G. A., Burdock. 2005. “Safety Assessment of Esters of P-Hydroxybenzoic Acid (Parabens).” Food & Chemical Toxicology43 (7): 985–1015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2005.01.020.
Sun, Q., G., Zong, D., Valvi, F., Nielsen, B., Coull, and P., Grandjean. 2018. “Plasma Concentrations of Perfluoroalkyl Substances and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes: A Prospective Investigation Among U.S. Women.” Environmental Health Perspectives126 (3): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP2619.
Tian, X., K., Huang, Y., Liu, K., Jiang, R., Liu, J., Cui, F., Wang, et al. 2023. “Distribution of Phthalate Metabolites, Benzophenone-Type Ultraviolet Filters, Parabens, Triclosan and Triclocarban in Paired Human Hair, Nail and Urine Samples.” Environmental Pollution333:122083. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2023.122083.
UNEP. 2019. “Global Chemicals Outlook II: From Legacies to Innovative Solutions.”
Vorkamp, K., A., Castaño, J. P., Antignac, L. D., Boada, E., Cequier, A., Covaci, M., Esteban López, et al. 2021. “Biomarkers, Matrices and Analytical Methods Targeting Human Exposure to Chemicals Selected for a European Human Biomonitoring Initiative.” Environment International146:106082. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.106082.
Wang, Y., Y., Zhong, J., Li, J., Zhang, B., Lyu, Y., Zhao, and Y., Wu. 2018. “Occurrence of Perfluoroalkyl Substances in Matched Human Serum, Urine, Hair and Nail.” Journal of Environmental Sciences67:191–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2017.08.017.
Wojtkiewicz, J., M., Tzatzarakis, E., Vakonaki, K., Makowska, and S., Gonkowski. 2021. “Evaluation of Human Exposure to Parabens in Northeastern Poland Through Hair Sample Analysis.” Scientific Reports11 (1): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-03152-8.
Zheng, G., S. M., Eick, and A., Salamova. 2023. “Elevated Levels of Ultrashort- and Short-Chain Perfluoroalkyl Acids in US Homes and People.” Environmental Science & Technology57 (42): 15782. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.2c06715.
Zheng, J., L.-H., Yu, S.-J., Chen, G.-C., Hu, K.-H., Chen, X., Yan, X.-J., Luo, et al. 2016. “Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) in Human Hair and Serum from E-Waste Recycling Workers in Southern China: Concentrations, Chiral Signatures, Correlations, and Source Identification.” Environmental Science & Technology50 (3): 1579–1586. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b04955.
