Modelling snowpack on ice surfaces with the ORCHIDEE land surface model: application to the Greenland ice sheet

[en] Abstract. Current climate warming is accelerating mass loss from glaciers and ice sheets. In Greenland, the rates of mass changes are now dominated by changes in surface mass balance (SMB) due to increased surface melting. To improve the future sea-level rise projections, it is therefore critical to have an accurate estimate of the SMB, which depends on the representation of the processes occurring within the snowpack. The Explicit Snow (ES) scheme implemented in the land surface model Organising Carbon and Hydrology In Dynamic Ecosystems (ORCHIDEE) has not yet been adapted to ice-covered areas. Here, we present the preliminary developments we made to apply the ES model to glaciers and ice sheets. Our analysis mainly concerns the model's ability to represent ablation-related processes. At the regional scale, our results are compared to the MAR regional atmospheric model outputs and to MODIS albedo retrievals. Using different albedo parameterizations, we performed offline ES simulations forced by the MAR model over the 2000–2019 period. Our results reveal a strong sensitivity of the modelled SMB components to the albedo parameterization. Results inferred with albedo parameters obtained using a manual tuning approach present very good agreement with the MAR outputs. Conversely, with the albedo parameterization used in the standard ORCHIDEE version, runoff and sublimation were underestimated. We also tested parameters found in a previous data assimilation experiment, calibrating the ablation processes using MODIS snow albedo. While these parameters greatly improve the modelled albedo over the entire ice sheet, they degrade the other model outputs compared to those obtained with the manually tuned approach. This is likely due to the model overfitting to the calibration albedo dataset without any constraint applied to the other processes controlling the state of the snowpack. This underlines the need to perform a “multi-objective” optimization using auxiliary observations related to internal snowpack processes. Although there is still room for further improvements, the developments reported in the present study constitute an important advance in assessing the Greenland SMB with possible extension to mountain glaciers or the Antarctic ice sheet.

Research Center/Unit :

SPHERES - ULiège

Disciplines :

Earth sciences & physical geography

Author, co-author :

Charbit, Sylvie

Dumas, Christophe

Maignan, Fabienne

Ottlé, Catherine

Raoult, Nina

Fettweis, Xavier ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département de géographie > Climatologie et Topoclimatologie

Conesa, Philippe

Language :

English

Title :

Modelling snowpack on ice surfaces with the ORCHIDEE land surface model: application to the Greenland ice sheet

Publication date :

08 November 2024

Journal title :

The Cryosphere

ISSN :

1994-0416

eISSN :

1994-0424

Publisher :

Copernicus GmbH

Volume :

Issue :

Pages :

5067-5099

Peer reviewed :

Peer Reviewed verified by ORBi

Tags :

CÉCI : Consortium des Équipements de Calcul Intensif

Additional URL :

https://tc.copernicus.org/articles/18/5067/2024/tc-18-5067-2024.pdf

Funders :

ANR - Agence Nationale de la Recherche

Available on ORBi :

since 09 November 2024

Statistics

Number of views

8 (0 by ULiège)

Number of downloads

5 (0 by ULiège)

More statistics

Scopus citations^®

Scopus citations^®
without self-citations

OpenCitations

OpenAlex citations

Bibliography

Alexander, P. M., Tedesco, M., Fettweis, X., van de Wal, R. S. W., Smeets, C. J. P. P., and van den Broeke, M. R.: Assessing spatiotemporal variability and trends in modelled and measured Greenland Ice Sheet albedo (2000-2013), The Cryosphere, 8, 2293- 2312, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-2293-2014, 2014.
Anderson, E. A.: A point energy and mass balance model of a snow cover, Technical Report NWS 19, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Silver Spring, MD, USA, 150 pp., 1976.
Anderson, T. W.: On the distribution of the two-sample Cramer von Mises criterion, The Annals of Mathematical Statistics, 33, 1148-1159, 1962.
Armstrong, R. L. and Brun, E.: Snow and Climate: Physical processes, surface energy exchange and modeling, Cambridge University Press, 222 pp., 2008.
Bakker, P, Schmittner, A., Lenaerts, J. T. M., Abe-Ouchi, A., Bi, D., van den Broecke, M. R., Chan, W. L., Hu, A., Beadling, R. L., Marsland, S. J., Mernild, S. H., Saenko, O. A., Swingedouw, D., Sullivan, A. and Yin, J.: Fate of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation: Strong decline under continued warming and Greenland melting, Geophys. Res. Lett., 43, 12252-12260, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL070457, 2016.
Bennartz, R., Shupe, M. D., Turner, D. D., Walden, V. P., Steffen, K., Cox, C. J., Kulie, M. S., Miller, N. B., and Pettersen, C.: July 2012 Greenland melt extent enhanced by low-level liquid clouds, Nature, 496, 83-86, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12002, 2013.
Bonelli, S., Charbit, S., Kageyama, M., Woillez, M.-N., Ramstein, G., Dumas, C., and Quiquet, A.: Investigating the evolution of major Northern Hemisphere ice sheets during the last glacial-interglacial cycle, Clim. Past, 5, 329-345, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-5-329-2009, 2009.
Boone, A. and Etchevers, P.: An intercomparison of three snow schemes of varying complexity coupled to the same land surface model: Local-scale evaluation at an Alpine site, J. Hydrometeorol., 2, 374-394, 2001. Born, A., Imhof, M. A., and Stocker, T. F.: An efficient surface energy-mass balance model for snow and ice, The Cryosphere, 13, 1529-1546, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1529-2019, 2019.
Boucher, O., Servonnat, J., Albright, A. L., Aumont, O., Balkanski, Y., Bastrikov, V., Bekki, S., Bonnet, R., Bony, S., Bopp, L., Braconnot, P., Brockmann, P., Cadule, P., Caubel, A., Cheruy, F., Codron, F., Cozic, A., Cugnet, D., D'Andrea, F., Davini, P., de Lavergne, C., Denvil, S., Deshayes, J., Devilliers, M., Ducharne, A., Dufresne, J.-L., Dupont, E., Éthé, C., Fairhead, L., Falletti, L., Flavoni, S., Foujols, M.-A., Gardoll, S., Gastineau, G., Ghattas, J., Grandpeix, J.-Y., Guenet, B., Guez, Lionel, E., Guilyardi, E., Guimberteau, M., Hauglustaine, D., Hourdin, F., Idelkadi, A., Joussaume, S., Kageyama, M., Khodri, M., Krinner, G., Lebas, N., Levavasseur, G., Lévy, C., Li, L., Lott, F., Lurton, T., Luyssaert, S., Madec, G., Madeleine, J.-B., Maignan, F., Marchand, M., Marti, O., Mellul, L., Meurdesoif, Y., Mignot, J., Musat, I., Ottlé, C., Peylin, P., Planton, Y., Polcher, J., Rio, C., Rochetin, N., Rousset, C., Sepulchre, P., Sima, A., Swingedouw, D., Thiéblemont, R., Traore, A. K., Vancoppenolle, M., Vial, J., Vialard, J., Viovy, N., and Vuichard, N.: Presentation and evaluation of the IPSL-CM6A-LR climate model, J. Adv. Model. Earth Sy., 12, e2019MS002010, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019MS002010, 2020.
Bougamont, M., Bamber, J. L., Ridley, J. K., Gladstone, R. M., Greuell, W., Hanna, E., Payne, A. J., and Rutt, I.: Impact of model physics on estimating the surface mass balance of the Greenland ice sheet, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L17501, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007GL030700, 2007.
Box, J. E.: MODIS Greenland albedo, V1, GEUS Dataverse [data set], https://doi.org/10.22008/FK2/6JAQPK, 2022.
Box, J. E., Fettweis, X., Stroeve, J. C., Tedesco, M., Hall, D. K., and Steffen, K.: Greenland ice sheet albedo feedback: Thermodynamics and atmospheric drivers, The Cryosphere, 6, 821-839, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-6-821-2012, 2012.
Box, J. E., van As, D., and Steffen, K.: Greenland, Canadian and Icelandic land-ice albedo grids (2000-2016), GEUS Bulletin, 38, 53-56, https://doi.org/10.34194/geusb.v38.4414, 2017.
Brun, E., Martin, E., Simon, V., Gendre, C., and Coleou, C.: An energy and mass model of snow cover suitable for operational avalanche forecasting, J. Glaciol., 35, 333-342, https://doi.org/10.3189/S0022143000009254, 1989.
Brun, E., David, P., Sudul, M., and Brunot, G.: A numerical model to simulate snow cover stratigraphy for operational avalanche forecasting, J. Glaciol., 38, 13-22, https://doi.org/10.3189/S0022143000009552, 1992.
Chalita, S. and Le Treut, H.: The albedo of temperate and boreal forest and the Northern Hemisphere climate: A sensitivity experiment using the LMD GCM, Clim. Dynam., 10, 231-240, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00208990, 1994.
Charbit, S., Kageyama, M., Roche, D., Ritz, C., and Ramstein, G.: Investigating the mechanisms leading to the deglaciation of past continental Northern hemisphere ice sheets with the CLIMBERGREMLINS coupled model, Global Planet. Changes, 48, 253- 273, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2005.01.002, 2005.
Charbit, S., Paillard, D., and Ramstein, G.: Amount of CO2 emissions irreversibly leading to the total melting of Greenland, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L12503, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL033472, 2008.
Charbit, S., Dumas, C., Kageyama, M., Roche, D. M., and Ritz, C.: Influence of ablation-related processes in the build-up of simulated Northern Hemisphere ice sheets during the last glacial cycle, The Cryosphere, 7, 681-698, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-681-2013, 2013.
Chéruy, F., Ducharne, A., Hourdin, F., Musat, I., Vignon, E., Gastineau, G., Bastrikov, V., Vuichard, N., Diallo, B., Dufresne, J., Ghattas, J., Grandpeix, J., Idelkadi, A., Mellul, L., Maignan, F. Menegoz, M., Ottlé, C., Peylin, P., Servonnat, J., Wang, F., and Zhao, Y.: Improved near-surface continental climate in IPSLCM6A-LR by combined evolutions of atmospheric and land surface physics, J. Adv. Model. Earth Sy., 12, e2019MS002005, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019MS002005, 2020.
Colbeck, S. C.: Theory of metamorphism of dry snow, J. Geophys. Res., 88, 5475-5482, 1983.
Cristea, N. C., Bennett, A., Nijssen, B., and Lundquist, J. D.: When and where are multiple snow layers important for simulations of snow accumulation and melt?, Water Resour. Res., 58, e2020WR028993, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020WR028993, 2022.
Cullather, R. I., Nowicki, S. M. J., Zhao, B., and Suarez, M. J.: Evaluation of the Surface Representation of the Greenland Ice Sheet in a General Circulation Model, J. Climate, 27, 4835-4856, https://doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-13-00635.1, 2014.
Decharme, B., Brun, E., Boone, A., Delire, C., Le Moigne, P., and Morin, S.: Impacts of snow and organic soils parameterization on northern Eurasian soil temperature profiles simulated by the ISBA land surface model, The Cryosphere, 10, 853-877, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-853-2016, 2016.
Dee, D. P., Uppala, S. M., Simmons, A. J., Berrisford, P., Poli, P., Kobayashi, S., Andrae, U., Balmaseda, M.A., Balsamo, G., Bauer, P., Bechtold, P., Beljaars, A., C., M., van de Berg, L., Bidlot, J., Bormann, N., Delsol, C., Dragani, R., Fuentes, M., Geer, A.J., Haimberger, L., Healy, S. B., Hersbach, H., Hólm, E.V., Isaksen, L., Kallberg, P., Köhler, M., Matricardi, M., McNally, A.P., Monge-Sanz, B. M., Morcrette, J.-J., Park, B.-K., Peubey, C., de Rosnay, P, . Tavolato, C., Thépaut, J.-N., and Vitart, F.: The ERA-Interim reanalysis: configuration and performance of the data assimilation system, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 137, 553-597, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.828, 2011.
Delhasse, A., Kittel, C., Amory, C., Hofer, S., van As, D., S. Fausto, R., and Fettweis, X.: Brief communication: Evaluation of the near-surface climate in ERA5 over the Greenland Ice Sheet, The Cryosphere, 14, 957-965, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-957-2020, 2020.
De Ridder, K, and Schayes G: The IAGL land surface model, J. Appl. Meteorol., 36, 167-182, https://doi.org/10.1086/451461, 1997.
Dietrich, L. J., Steen-Larsen, H. C., Wahl, S., Faber, A.-K., and Fettweis, X.: On the importance of the humidity flux for the surface mass balance in the accumulation zone of the Greenland Ice Sheet, The Cryosphere, 18, 289-305, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-18-289-2024, 2024.
Domine, F., Picard, G., Morin, S., Barrere, M., Madore, J.-B., and Langlois, A.: Major issues in simulating some Arctic snowpack properties using current detailed snow physics models: Consequences for the thermal regime and water budget of permafrost, J. Adv. Model. Earth Sy., 11, 34-44, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018MS001445, 2019.
Dutra, E., Viterbo P., Miranda, P. M. A., and Balsamo, G.: Complexity of Snow Schemes in a Climate Model and Its Impact on Surface Energy and Hydrology, J. Hydrometeorol., 13, 512-538, https://doi.org/10.1175/JHM-D-11-072.1, 2012.
Edwards, T. L., Fettweis, X., Gagliardini, O., Gillet-Chaulet, F., Goelzer, H., Gregory, J. M., Hoffman, M., Huybrechts, P., Payne, A. J., Perego, M., Price, S., Quiquet, A., and Ritz, C.: Effect of uncertainty in surface mass balance-elevation feedback on projections of the future sea level contribution of the Greenland ice sheet, The Cryosphere, 8, 195-208, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-195-2014, 2014.
Enderlin, E. M., Howat, I. M., Jeong, S., Noh, M.-J., van Angelen, J. H., and van den Broeke, M. R.: An improved mass budget for the Greenland ice sheet, Geophys. Res. Lett., 41, 866-872, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013GL059010, 2014.
Eyring, V., Bony, S., Meehl, G. A., Senior, C. A., Stevens, B., Stouffer, R. J., and Taylor, K. E.: Overview of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) experimental design and organization, Geosci. Model Dev., 9, 1937-1958, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-9-1937-2016, 2016.
Fausto, R. S., van As, D., Mankoff, K. D., Vandecrux, B., Citterio, M., Ahlstrøm, A. P., Andersen, S. B., Colgan, W., Karlsson, N. B., Kjeldsen, K. K., Korsgaard, N. J., Larsen, S. H., Nielsen, S., Pedersen, A. Ø., Shields, C. L., Solgaard, A. M., and Box, J. E.: Programme for Monitoring of the Greenland Ice Sheet (PROMICE) automatic weather station data, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 13, 3819-3845, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-3819-2021, 2021.
Fettweis, X.: Outputs of the MAR (1995-2019) model over the Greenland ice sheet (v.3.11.4), Zenodo [data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14045970 (last access: 30 October 2020), 2020.
Fettweis, X., Box, J. E., Agosta, C., Amory, C., Kittel, C., Lang, C., van As, D., Machguth, H., and Gallée, H.: Reconstructions of the 1900-2015 Greenland ice sheet surface mass balance using the regional climate MAR model, The Cryosphere, 11, 1015-1033, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1015-2017, 2017.
Fettweis, X., Hofer, S., Krebs-Kanzow, U., Amory, C., Aoki, T., Berends, C. J., Born, A., Box, J. E., Delhasse, A., Fujita, K., Gierz, P., Goelzer, H., Hanna, E., Hashimoto, A., Huybrechts, P., Kapsch, M.-L., King, M. D., Kittel, C., Lang, C., Langen, P. L., Lenaerts, J. T. M., Liston, G. E., Lohmann, G., Mernild, S. H., Mikolajewicz, U., Modali, K., Mottram, R. H., Niwano, M., Noël, B., Ryan, J. C., Smith, A., Streffing, J., Tedesco, M., van de Berg, W. J., van den Broeke, M., van de Wal, R. S. W., van Kampenhout, L., Wilton, D., Wouters, B., Ziemen, F., and Zolles, T.: GrSMBMIP: intercomparison of the modelled 1980- 2012 surface mass balance over the Greenland Ice Sheet, The Cryosphere, 14, 3935-3958, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3935-2020, 2020.
Flanner, M. G. and Zender, C. S.: Linking snowpack microphysics and albedo evolution, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D12208, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JD006834, 2006.
Fox-Kemper, B., Hewitt, H. T., Xiao, C., A-algeirsdóttir, G., Drijfhout, S. S., Edwards, T. L., Golledge, N. R., Hemer, M., Kopp, R. E., Krinner, G., Mix, A., Notz, D., Nowicki, S., Nurhati, I. S., Ruiz, L., Sallée, J.-B., Slangen, A. B. A., and Yu, Y.: Ocean, Cryosphere and Sea Level Change, in: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by: Masson-Delmotte, V., Zhai, P., Pirani, A., Connors, S. L., Péan, C., Berger, S., Caud, N., Chen, Y., Goldfarb, L., Gomis, M. I., Huang, M., Leitzell, K., Lonnoy, E., Matthews, J. B. R., Maycock, T. K., Waterfield, T., Yelekçi, O., Yu, R., and Zhou, B., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1211- 1362, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157896.011, 2021.
Franco, B., Fettweis, X., Lang, C., and Erpicum, M.: Impact of spatial resolution on the modelling of the Greenland ice sheet surface mass balance between 1990-2010, using the regional climate model MAR, The Cryosphere, 6, 695-711, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-6-695-2012, 2012.
Fréville, H.: Observation et simulation de la température de surface en Antarctique : Application à l'estimation de la densité superficielle de la neige, PhD, Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse III, Toulouse, https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-01512722 (last access: July 2024), 2015.
Fyke, J., Sergienko, O., Löfverström, M., Price, S., and Lenaerts, J. T., M.: An overview of interactions and feedbacks between ice sheets and the Earth system, Rev. Geophys., 56, 361-408, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018RG000600, 2018.
Gallée, H. and Schayes, G.: Development of a three-dimensional meso-primitive equations model: Katabatic winds simulation in the area of Terra Nova Bay, Antarctica, Mon. Weather Rev., 122, 671-685, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1994)1220671:DOATDM2.0.CO;2, 1994.
Hahn, L. C., Storelvmo, T., Hofer, S., Parfitt, R., and Ummenhofer, C. C.: Importance of orography for Greenland ice sheet cloud and melt response to atmospheric blocking, J. Climate, 33, 4187- 4206, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-19-0527.1, 2020.
Hall, D. and Riggs, G.: MODIS/Terra Snow Cover Daily L3 Global 500m Grid, Version 6. Greenland coverage, National Snow and Ice Data Center, NASA Distributed Active Archive Center, Boulder, Colorado USA, http://nsidc.org/data/MOD10A1/versions/6 (last access: December 2016), 2016.
Hall, D. K., Riggs, G. A., and Salomonson, V. V.: Development of methods for mapping global snow cover using moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer data, Remote Sens. Environ., 54, 127-140, https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-4257(95)00137-P, 1995.
He, C., Flanner, M., Lawrence, D. M., and Gu, Y.: New features and enhancements in community land model (CLM5) snow albedo modeling: Description, sensitivity, and evaluation, J. Adv. Model. Earth Sy., 16, e2023MS003861, https://doi.org/10.1029/2023MS003861, 2024.
Helsen, M. M., van de Wal, R. S. W., Reerink, T. J., Bintanja, R., Madsen, M. S., Yang, S., Li, Q., and Zhang, Q.: On the importance of the albedo parameterization for the mass balance of the Greenland ice sheet in EC-Earth, The Cryosphere, 11, 1949- 1965, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1949-2017, 2017.
Hersbach, H., Bell, B., Berrisford, P., Hirahara, S., Horányi, A., Muñoz-Sabater, J., Nicolas, J., Peubey, C., Radu, R., Schepers, D., Simmons, A., Soci, C., Abdalla, S., Abellan, X., Balsamo, G., Bechtold, P., Biavati, G., Bidlot, J., Bonavita, M., De Chiara, G., Dahlgren, P., Dee, D., Diamantakis, M., Dragani, R., Flemming, J., Forbes, R., Fuentes, M., Geer, A., Haimberger, L., Healy, S., Hogan, R.J., Hólm, E., Janisková, M., Keeley, S., Laloyaux, P., Lopez, P., Lupu, C., Radnoti, G., de Rosnay, P., Rozum, I., Vamborg, F., Villaume, S., and Thépaut, J.-N.: The ERA5 global reanalysis, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 146, 1999- 2049, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3803, 2020.
Hourdin, F., Musat, I., Bony, S., Braconnot, P., Codron, F., Dufresne, J., Fairhead, L., Filiberti, M., Friedlingstein, P., Grandpeix, J., Krinner, G., Le Van, P., Li, Z.-X., and Lott, F.: The LMDZ4 general circulation model: climate performance and sensitivity to parametrised physics with emphasis on tropical convection, Clim. Dynam., 27, 787-813, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-006-0158-0, 2006.
IPSL Data Catalogue: ORCHIDEEICE_ SurfaceMassBalance, IPSL Data Catalogue [code], https://doi.org/10.14768/d82899b4-09b4-4337-Abb1-75886602fe72, 2024.
Kageyama, M., Charbit, S., Ritz, C., Khodri, M., and Ramstein G.: Quantifying ice-sheet feedbacks during the last glacial inception, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L24203, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004GL021339, 2004.
Kojima, K.: Densification of seasonal snow cover. Physics of Snow and Ice: Proceedings of the International Conference on Low Temperature Science, Part 1, Sapporo, Japan, Hokkaido University, 1, 929-952, 1967.
Kokhanovsky, A. A. and Zege, E. P.: Scattering optics of snow, Appl. Optics, 43, 1589-1602, 2004.
Krinner, G., Viovy, N., de Noblet-Ducoudré, N., Ogée, J., Polcher, J., Friedlingstein, P., Ciais, P., Sitch, S., and Prentice, I. C.: A dynamic global vegetation model for studies of the coupled atmosphere-biosphere system, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 19, GB1015, https://doi.org/10.1029/2003GB002199, 2005.
Lawrence, D. M., Fisher, R. A., Koven, C. D., Oleson, K. W., Swenson, S. C., Bonan, G., Collier, N., Ghimire, B., van Kampenhout, L., Kennedy, D., Kluzek, E., Lawrence, P. J., Li, F., Li, H., Lombardozzi, D., Riley, W. J., Sacks, W. J., Shi, M., Vertenstein, M., Wieder, W. R., Xu, C., Ali, A. A., Badger, A. M., Bisht, G., van den Broeke, M., Brunke, M. A., Burns, S. P., Buzan, J., Clark, M., Craig, A., Dahlin, K., Drewniak, B., Fisher, J. B., Flanner, M., Fox, A. M., Gentine, P., Hoffman, F., Keppel-Aleks, G., Knox, R., Kumar, S., Lenaerts, J., Leung, L. R., Lipscomb, W. H., Lu, Y., Pandey, A., Pelletier, J. D., Perket, J., Randerson, J. T., Ricciuto, D. M., Sanderson, B. M., Slater, A., Subin, Z. M., Tang, J., Thomas, R. Q., Val Martin, M., and Zeng, X.: The Community Land Model Version 5: Description of New Features, Benchmarking, and Impact of Forcing Uncertainty, J. Adv. Model. Earth Sy., 11, 4245-4287, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018MS001583, 2019.
Lefebre, F., Gallée, H., van Ypersele, J.-P. and W. Greuell, Modeling of snow and ice melt at ETH Camp (West Greenland): A study of surface albedo, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4231, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001JD001160, 2003.
Libois, Q., Picard, G., France, J. L., Arnaud, L., Dumont, M., Carmagnola, C. M., and King, M. D.: Influence of grain shape on light penetration in snow, The Cryosphere, 7, 1803-1818, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-1803-2013, 2013.
Louis, J. F.: A parametric model of vertical eddy fluxes in the atmosphere, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 17, 187-202, 1979.
Lynch-Stieglitz, M.: The development and validation of a simple snow model for the GISS GCM, J. Climate, 7, 1842-1855, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1994)0071842:TDAVOA2.0.CO;2, 1994.
Martin, T., Biastoch, A., Lohmann, G., Mikolajewicz, U., and Wang, X.: On timescales and reversibility of the ocean's response to enhanced Greenland Ice Sheet melting in comprehensive climate models, Geophys. Res. Lett., 49, e2021GL097114, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GL097114, 2022.
Machguth, H., Thomsen, H. H., Weidick, A., Abermann, J., Ahlström, A. P., Andersen, M. L., Andersen, S. B., Björk, A. A., Box, J. E., Braithwaite, R. J., Bøggild, C. E., Citterio, M., Clement, P., Colgan, W., Fausto, R. S., Gleie, K., Hasholt, B., Hynek, B., Knudsen, N. T., Larsen, S. H., Mernild, S., Oerlemans, J., Oerter, H., Olesen, O. B., Smeets, C. J. P. P., Steffen, K., Stober, M., Sugiyama, S., van As, D., van den Broeke, M. R., and van de Wal, R. S.: Greenland surface mass balance observations from the ice sheet ablation area and local glaciers, J. Glaciol., 62, 861-887, https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2016.75, 2016.
Maeno, N.: The electrical behaviours of Antarctic ice drilled at Mizuho Station, East Antarctica Memoirs of the National Institute of Polar Research 10, 77-94, 1978.
Maeno, N. and Ebinuma, T.: Pressure sintering of ice and its implication to the densification of snow at polar glaciers and ice sheets, J. Phys. Chem., 87, 4103-4110, 1983.
Mankoff, K. D., Fettweis, X., Langen, P. L., Stendel, M., Kjeldsen, K. K., Karlsson, N. B., Noël, B., van den Broeke, M. R., Solgaard, A., Colgan, W., Box, J. E., Simonsen, S. B., King, M. D., Ahlstrøm, A. P., Andersen, S. B., and Fausto, R. S.: Greenland 70 ice sheet mass balance from 1840 through next week, Version V890, GEUS Dataverse [data set], https://doi.org/10.22008/FK2/OHI23Z, 2021a.
Mankoff, K. D., Fettweis, X., Langen, P. L., Stendel, M., Kjeldsen, K. K., Karlsson, N. B., Noël, B., van den Broeke, M. R., Solgaard, A., Colgan, W., Box, J. E., Simonsen, S. B., King, M. D., Ahlstrøm, A. P., Andersen, S. B., and Fausto, R. S.: Greenland ice sheet mass balance from 1840 through next week, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 13, 5001-5025, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-5001-2021, 2021b.
Marshall, H. P., Conway, H., and Rasmussen, L. A.: Snow densification during rain, Cold Reg. Sci. Technol., 30, 35-41, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-232X(99)00011-7, 1999.
Mellor, M.: Snow and Ice on the Earth's Surface, in: Cold regions science and engineering. Part 2, Physical science. Sect. C, The physics and mechanics of ice, Snow and Ice on the Earth's Surface, U.S. Army Materiel Command, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, 163 pp., 1964.
Mizukami, N., and Perica, S.: Spatiotemporal characteristics of snowpack density in the mountainous regions of the western United States, J. Hydrometeorol., 9, 1416-1426, https://doi.org/10.1175/2008JHM981.1, 2008.
Monin, A. S. and Obukhov, A. M.: Basic laws of turbulent mixing in the surface layer of the atmosphere, Contrib. Geophys. Inst. Acad. Sci. USSR, 151, e187, 1954.
Montgomery, L., Koenig, L., Lenaerts, J. T. M., and Kuipers Munneke, P.: Accumulation rates (2009-2017) in Southeast Greenland derived from airborne snow radar and comparison with regional climate models, Ann. Glaciol., 61, 225-233, https://doi.org/10.1017/aog.2020.8, 2020.
Muntjewerf, L., Sellevod, R., Vizcaino, M., Ernani da Silva, C., Petrini, M., Thayer-Calder, K., Scherrenberg, M. D.W., Bradley, S. L., Katsman, C. A., Fyke, J., Lipscomb, W. H., Löfverström, M., and Sacks, W. J.: Accelerated Greenland ice sheet mass loss under high greenhouse gas forcing as simulated by the coupled CESM2.1-CISM2.1, J. Adv. Model. Earth Sy., 12, e2019MS002031, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019MS002031, 2020.
Niu, G.-Y. and Yang, Z.-L.: An observation-based formulation of snow cover fraction and its evaluation over large North American river basins, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D21101, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JD008674, 2007.
Noël, B., van de Berg, W. J., Machguth, H., Lhermitte, S., Howat, I., Fettweis, X., and van den Broeke, M. R.: A daily, 1 km resolution data set of downscaled Greenland ice sheet surface mass balance (1958-2015), The Cryosphere, 10, 2361-2377, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-2361-2016, 2016.
Noël, B., van de Berg, W. J., van Wessem, J. M., van Meijgaard, E., van As, D., Lenaerts, J. T. M., Lhermitte, S., Kuipers Munneke, P., Smeets, C. J. P. P., van Ulft, L. H., van de Wal, R. S. W., and van den Broeke, M. R.: Modelling the climate and surface mass balance of polar ice sheets using RACMO2 - Part 1: Greenland (1958-2016), The Cryosphere, 12, 811-831, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-811-2018, 2018.
Pahaut, E.: La métamorphose des cristaux de neige (Snow crystal metamorphosis), Monographies de la Météorologie Nationale, No. 96, Météo France, Direction de la météorologie nationale, France, 58 pp., 1976.
Patterson, W. S. B.: The Physics of Glaciers, 3rd edn., 480 pp., Butterworth-Heinemann, 1994.
Punge, H. J., Gallée, H., Kageyama, M., and Krinner, G.: Modelling snow accumulation on Greenland in Eemian, glacial inception, and modern climates in a GCM, Clim. Past, 8, 1801-1819, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-8-1801-2012, 2012.
Raoult, N., Charbit, S., Dumas, C., Maignan, F., Ottlé, C., and Bastrikov, V.: Improving modelled albedo over the Greenland ice sheet through parameter optimisation and MODIS snow albedo retrievals, The Cryosphere, 17, 2705-2724, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-2705-2023, 2023.
Reeh, N.: Parameterization of melt rate and surface temperature on the Greenland ice sheet, Polarforschung, 5913, 113-128, 1991.
Reynolds, C. A., Jackson, T. J., and Rawls, W. J.: Estimating soil water-holding capacities by linking the Food and Agriculture Organization soil map of the world with global pedon databases and continuous pedotransfer functions, Water Resour. Res., 36, 3653-3662, https://doi.org/10.1029/2000WR900130, 2000.
Ridley, J. K., Huybrechts, P., Gregory, J. M., and Lowe, J. A.: Elimination of the Greenland ice sheet in a high CO2 climate, J. Climate, 18, 3409-3427, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI3482.1, 2005.
Riihelä, A., King, M. D., and Anttila, K.: The surface albedo of the Greenland Ice Sheet between 1982 and 2015 from the CLARA-A2 dataset and its relationship to the ice sheet's surface mass balance, The Cryosphere, 13, 2597-2614, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-2597-2019, 2019.
Roche, D. M., Dumas, C., Bögelmayer, M., Charbit, S., and Ritz, C.: Adding a dynamical cryosphere to iLOVECLIM (version 1.0): coupling with the GRISLI ice-sheet model, Geosci. Model Dev., 7, 1377-1394, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-7-1377-2014, 2014.
Ryan, J.V., Smith, L. C., van As, D., Cooley, S. W., Cooper, M. G., Pitcher, L. H., and Hubbard, A.: Greenland Ice Sheet surface melt amplified by snowline migration and bare ice exposure, Sci. Adv., 5, eaav3738, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aav3738, 2019.
Sellevold, R., van Kampenhout, L., Lenaerts, J. T. M., Noël, B., Lipscomb, W. H., and Vizcaino, M.: Surface mass balance downscaling through elevation classes in an Earth system model: Application to the Greenland ice sheet, The Cryosphere, 13, 3193-3208, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-3193-2019, 2019.
Smith, B. E., Medley, B., Fettweis, X., Sutterley, T., Alexander, P., Porter, D., and Tedesco, M.: Evaluating Greenland surfacemass-balance and firn-densification data using ICESat-2 altimetry, The Cryosphere, 17, 789-808, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-789-2023, 2023.
Smith, R. S., Mathiot P., Siahaan, A., Lee, V., Cornford, S. L., Gregory, J. M., Payne, A. J., Jenkins, A., Holland, P., R., Ridley, J. K., and Jones, C. G.: Coupling the U.K. Earth System Model to dynamic models of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, J. Adv. Model. Earth Sy., 13, e2021MS002520, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021MS002520, 2021.
Stephens, M. A.: Use of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov, Cramer-von Mises and related statistics without extensive tables, J. Roy. Stat. Soc. B, 32, 115-122, 1970.
Sun, S., Jin, J., and Xue, Y.: A simple snow-Atmospheresoil transfer model, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 19587-19597, https://doi.org/10.1029/1999JD900305, 1999.
Taylor, K. E., Stouffer, R. J., and Meehl, G. A.: An overview of CMIP5 and the experiment design, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 93, 485-498, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00094.1, 2012.
Tedesco, M. and Fettweis, X.: Unprecedented atmospheric conditions (1948-2019) drive the 2019 exceptional melting season over the Greenland ice sheet, The Cryosphere, 14, 1209-1223, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1209-2020, 2020.
The IMBIE team: Mass balance of the Greenland ice sheet from 1992 to 2018, Nature, 579, 233-239, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1855-2, 2020.
Uppala, S. M., Kallberg, P. W., Simmons, A. J., Andrae, U., da Costa Bechtold, V., Fiorino, M., Gibson, J. K., Haseler, J., Hernandez, A., Kelly, G. A., Li, X., Onogi, K., Saarinen, S., Sokka, N., Allan, R. P., Andersson, E., Arpe, K., Balmaseda, M. A., Beljaars, A. C. M., van de Berg, L., Bidlot, J., Bormann, N., Caires, S., Chevallier, F., Dethof, A., Dragosavac, M., Fisher, M., Fuentes, M., Hagemann, S., Hólm, E. V., Hoskins, B. J., Isaksen, L., Janssen, P. A. E. M., Jenne, R., McNally, A. P., Mahfouf, J.-F., Morcrette, J.-J., Rayner, N. A., Saunders, R.W., Simon, P., Sterl, A., Trenberth, K. E., Untch, A., Vasiljevic, D., Viterbo, P., and Woollen, J.: The ERA-40 re-Analysis, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 131, 2961-3012, 2005.
Urraca, R., Lanconelli, C., Cappucci, F., and Gobron, N.: Comparison of Long-Term Albedo Products against Spatially Representative Stations over Snow, Remote Sens., 14, 3745, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14153745, 2022.
Urraca, R., Lanconelli, C., Cappucci, F., and Gobron, N.: Assessing the fitness of satellite albedo products for monitoring snow albedo trends, IEEE T. Geosci. Remote, 61, 4404817, https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2023.3281188, 2023.
van Angelen, J. H., van den Broeke, M. R., and van de Berg, W. J.: Momentum budget of the atmospheric boundary layer over the Greenland ice sheet and its surrounding seas, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 116, D10101, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JD015485, 2011.
van den Broeke, M., Bamber, J., Ettema, J., Rignot, E., Schrama, E., van de Berg, W. J., van Meijgaard, E., Velicogna, I., andWouters, B.: Partitioning recent Greenland mass loss, Science, 326, 984- 986, https://doi.org/10.1126/science1178176, 2009.
van den Broeke, M. R., Enderlin, E. M., Howat, I. M., Kuipers Munneke, P., Noël, B. P. Y., van de Berg, W. J., van Meijgaard, E., and Wouters, B.: On the recent contribution of the Greenland ice sheet to sea level change, The Cryosphere, 10, 1933-1946, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1933-2016, 2016.
van de Wal, R. S. W.: Mass-balance modelling of the Greenland ice sheet: A comparison of an energy-balance and a degree-day model, Ann. Glaciol., 23, 36-45, 1996.
Vionnet, V., Brun, E., Morin, S., Boone, A., Faroux, S., Le Moigne, P., Martin, E., and Willemet, J.-M.: The detailed snowpack scheme Crocus and its implementation in SURFEX v7.2, Geosci. Model Dev., 5, 773-791, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-5-773-2012, 2012.
Vizcaino, M.: Ice sheets as interactive components of Earth System Models: progress and challenges, WIREs Climate Change, 5, 557-568, https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.285, 2014.
Vizcaino, M., Mikolajewicz, U., Jungclaus, J., and Schurgers, G.: Clmate modification by future ice sheet changes and consequences for ice sheet mass balance, Clim. Dynam., 34, 301-324, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-009-0591-y, 2010.
Vizcaino, M., Lipscomb, W. H., Sacks, W. J., van Angelen, J. H., Wouters, B. and van den Broeke, M. R.: Greenland surface mass balance as simulated by the Community Earth System Model. Part I: Model evaluation and 1850-2005 results, J. Climate, 26, 7793-7812, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00615, 2013.
Wang, F., Cheruy, F., and Dufresne, J.-L.: The improvement of soil thermodynamics and its effects on land surface meteorology in the IPSL climate model, Geosci. Model Dev., 9, 363-381, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-9-363-2016, 2016.
Wang, T., Ottlé, C., Boone, A., Ciais, P., Brun, E., Morin, S., Krinner, G., Piao, S. and Peng, S.: Evaluation of an improved intermediate complexity snow scheme in the ORCHIDEE land surface model, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 118, 6064-6079, https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrd.50395, 2013.
Warren, S.: Optical properties of snow, Rev. Geophys. Space Phys., 20, 67-89, 1982.
Yang, Z., Chen, R., Liu, Y., Zhao, Y., Liu, Z., and Liu, J.: The impact of rain-on-snow events on the snowmelt process: A field study, Hydrol. Process., 37, e15019, https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.15019, 2023.
Yen, Y.-C.: Review of thermal properties of snow, ice and sea ice, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, NH, 1981.