Humans; Aged; Memory, Short-Term; Semantics; Mental Recall; Cognition; Aging/psychology; Memory, Episodic; aging; cognitive control; semantic organization; subjective organization; working memory; Social Psychology; Geriatrics and Gerontology
Abstract :
[en] Organizing information is beneficial to episodic memory performance. Among several possible organizational strategies, two consist of organizing the information in semantic clusters (semantic organization) or self-organizing the information based on new associations that do not exist in semantic memory (subjective organization). Here, we investigated in a single study how these two organizational behaviors were underlined by different controlled processes and whether these relations were subjected to age-related differences. We tested 123 younger adults (n = 63) and older adults (n = 60) on two episodic memory tasks, one where the words were organizable and another where the words were not organizable, allowing for semantic and subjective organization, respectively. Additionally, participants were tested on three cognitive control tasks (Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Stroop Test and Trail Making Test) and three working memory tasks (Backward Digit Span, Alpha Span and N-back test). Results revealed well-established age-related differences in terms of recall performance and organizational strategy implementation. More importantly, we found evidence that the different cognitive tests statistically yielded two different latent factors, a cognitive control factor and a working memory factor. Based on this dissociation, we found that only cognitive control contributed to semantic organization in all age groups whereas only working memory contributed to subjective organization, also in all age groups. These results shed new lights on our understanding of how controlled processes differently contribute to organizational behaviors in episodic memory. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).
Disciplines :
Neurosciences & behavior Geriatrics
Author, co-author :
Frick, Aurélien ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département des sciences cliniques
Fay, Séverine; UMR-CNRS 7295, Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition et l'Apprentissage, University of Tours
Bouazzaoui, Badiâa; UMR-CNRS 7295, Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition et l'Apprentissage, University of Tours
Sauzéon, Hélène; National Institute for Research in Digital Science and Technology, University of Bordeaux
Angel, Lucie; UMR-CNRS 7295, Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition et l'Apprentissage, University of Tours
Vanneste, Sandrine; UMR-CNRS 7295, Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition et l'Apprentissage, University of Tours
Taconnat, Laurence; UMR-CNRS 7295, Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition et l'Apprentissage, University of Tours
Language :
English
Title :
The respective contribution of cognitive control and working memory to semantic and subjective organization in aging.
Publication date :
2023
Journal title :
Psychology and Aging
ISSN :
0882-7974
Publisher :
American Psychological Association, Washington, United States - District of Columbia
Anderson, R. C., & Watts, G. H. (2013). Bidirectional associations in multitrial free recall. Psychonomic Science, 15(6), 288-289. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03336303
Angel, L., Fay, S., Bouazzaoui, B., & Isingrini, M. (2011). Two hemispheres for better memory in old age: Role of executive functioning. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23(12), 3767-3777. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_00104
Backman, L., & Wahlin, Â. (1995). Influences of item organizability and semantic retrieval cues on word recall in very old age. Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition: Section B, Aging, Neuropsychology and Cognition, 2(4), 312-325. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825589508256606
Barbey, A. K., Koenigs, M., & Grafman, J. (2013). Dorsolateral prefrontal contributions to human working memory. Cortex, 49(5), 1195-1205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2012.05.022
Bartsch, L. M., Loaiza, V. M., & Oberauer, K. (2019). Does limited working memory capacity underlie age differences in associative long-term memory?. Psychology and Aging, 34(2), 268-281. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000317
Bates, D., Machler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S. (2015). Fitting Linear Mixed-Effects Models Using (lme4). Journal of Statistical Software, 67(1), 1-48. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v067.i01
Bender, A. R., Naveh-Benjamin, M., & Raz, N. (2010). Associative deficit in recognition memory in a lifespan sample of healthy adults. Psychology and Aging, 25(4), 940-948. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020595
Bender, A. R., & Raz, N. (2012). Age-related differences in recognition memory for items and associations: Contribution of individual differences in working memory and metamemory. Psychology and Aging, 27(3), 691700. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026714
Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 238-246. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.238
Blumenfeld, R. S., & Ranganath, C. (2006). Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex promotes long-term memory formation through its role in working memory organization. The Journal of Neuroscience, 26(3), 916-925. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2353-05.2006
Bouazzaoui, B., Angel, L., Fay, S., Taconnat, L., Froger, C., & Isingrini, M. (2014). Does the greater involvement of executive control in memory with age act as a compensatory mechanism? Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue Canadienne de Psychologie Experimentale, 68(1), 5966. https://doi.org/10.1037/cep0000005
Bousfield, W. A. (1953). The occurrence of clustering in the recall of randomly arranged associates. The Journal of General Psychology, 49(2), 229-240. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221309.1953.9710088
Braver, T. S. (2008). Working memory, executive control, and aging. In F. I. M. Craik & T. A. Salthouse (Eds.), The handbook of aging and cognition (pp. 311-372). Psychology Press.
Burack, O. R., & Lachman, M. E. (1996). The effects of list-making on recall in young and elderly adults. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 51(4), 226-233. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/51B.4.P226
Burger, L., Uittenhove, K., Lemaire, P., & Taconnat, L. (2017). Strategy difficulty effects in young and older adults’ episodic memory are modulated by inter-stimulus intervals and executive control processes. Acta Psychologica, 175, 50-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2017.02.003
Chalfonte, B. L., & Johnson, M. K. (1996). Feature memory and binding in young and older adults. Memory & Cognition, 24(4), 403-416. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03200930
Cherry, K. E., Elliott, E. M., Golob, E. J., Brown, J. S., Kim, S., & Jazwinski, S. M. (2021). Strategic encoding and retrieval processes in verbal recall among middle-aged and older adults. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 39(2), 252-268. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12349
Content, A., Mousty, P., & Radeau, M. (1990). Brulex. Une base de données lexicales informatisée pour le français écrit et parlé [Computer lexical database for spoken and written French]. L’Année Psychologique, 90(4), 551-566. https://doi.org/10.3406/psy.1990.29428
Craik, F. I. M., Bialystok, E., Gillingham, S., & Stuss, D. T. (2018). Alpha span: A measure of working memory. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 72(3), 141-152. https://doi.org/10.1037/cep0000143
Craik, F. I. M., & Tulving, E. (1975). Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104(3), 268-294. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.104.3.268
Cribari-Neto, F., & Zeileis, A. (2010). Beta regression in R. Journal of Statistical Software, 34(2), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v034.i02
Davis, H. P., Klebe, K. J., Guinther, P. M., Schroder, K. B., Cornwell, R. E., & James, L. E. (2013). Subjective organization, verbal learning, and forgetting across the life span: From 5 to 89. Experimental Aging Research, 39(1), 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1080/0361073X.2013.741956
della Rocchetta, A. I., & Milner, B. (1993). Strategic search and retrieval inhibition: The role of the frontal lobes. Neuropsychologia, 31(6), 503524. https://doi.org/10.1016/0028-3932(93)90049-6
Denney, N. W. (1974). Clustering in middle and old age. Developmental Psychology, 10(4), 471-475. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0036604
Draheim, C., Tsukahara, J. S., Martin, J. D., Mashburn, C. A., & Engle, R. W. (2021). A toolbox approach to improving the measurement of attention control. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 150(2), 242-275. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000783
Fabiani, M., Zimmerman, B., & Gratton, G. (2016). Working memory and aging: A review. In P. Jolicoeur, C. Lefebvre, & J. Martinez-Trujillo (Eds.), Mechanisms of sensory working memory: Attention and performance XXV (pp. 121-138). Elsevier Academic Press.
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A. G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G* Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. BehaviorResearchMethods, 39(2), 175-191. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193146
Ferguson, H. J., Brunsdon, V. E. A., & Bradford, E. E. F. (2021). The developmental trajectories of executive function from adolescence to old age. Scientific Reports, 11(1), Article 1382. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-80866-1
Ferrari, S. L. P., & Cribari-Neto, F. (2010). Beta regression for modelling rates and proportions. Journal of Applied Statistics, 31(1), 799-815. https://doi.org/10.1080/0266476042000214501
Folstein, M. F., Folstein, S. E., & McHugh, P. R. (1975). “Mini-mental state”: A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 12(3), 189-198. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3956(75)90026-6
Frick, A., Wright, H. R., Fay, S., Vanneste, S., Angel, L., Bouazzaoui, B., & Taconnat, L. (2022). The protective effect of educational level varies as a function of the difficulty of the memory task in ageing. European Journal of Ageing, 19(4), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-022-00724-z
Friedman, N. P., & Miyake, A. (2017). Unity and diversity of executive functions: Individual differences as a window on cognitive structure. Cortex, 86, 186-204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2016.04.023
Friedman, N. P., Miyake, A., Corley, R. P., Young, S. E., Defries, J. C., & Hewitt, J. K. (2006). Not all executive functions are related to intelligence. Psychological Science, 17(2), 172-179. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01681.x
Frischkorn, G. T., Schubert, A. L., & Hagemann, D. (2019). Processing speed, working memory, and executive functions: Independent or interrelated predictors of general intelligence. Intelligence, 75, 95-110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2019.05.003
Frischkorn, G. T., Von Bastian, C. C., Souza, A. S., & Oberauer, K. (2022). Individual differences in updating are not related to reasoning ability and working memory capacity. Journal ofExperimental Psychology: General, 151(6), 1341-1357. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0001141
Froger, C., Taconnat, L., Landré, L., Beigneux, K., & Isingrini, M. (2009). Effects of level of processing at encoding and types of retrieval task in mild cognitive impairment and normal aging. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 31(3), 312-321. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803390802112554
Froger, C., Toczé, C., & Taconnat, L. (2014). How the strategic behavior modification can explain the age related deficit in episodic memory. L’Année Psychologique, 114(2), 355-387. https://doi.org/10.4074/S0003503314002061
Gershberg, F. B., & Shimamura, A. P. (1995). Impaired use of organizational strategies in free recall following frontal lobe damage. Neuropsychologia, 33(10), 1305-1333. https://doi.org/10.1016/0028-3932(95)00103-A
Guerrero, L., Bouazzaoui, B., Isingrini, M., & Angel, L. (2022). Involvement of executive control in neural capacity related to working memory in aging: An ERP P300 study. Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, 22(6), 1311-1333. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-022-01018-8
Guerrero Sastoque, L., Bouazzaoui, B., Burger, L., Froger, C., Isingrini, M., & Taconnat, L. (2019). Optimizing memory strategy use in young and older adults: The role of metamemory and internal strategy use. Acta Psycholo-gica, 192, 73-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2018.11.002
Hara, Y., & Naveh-Benjamin, M. (2015). The role of reduced working memory storage and processing resources in the associative memory deficit of older adults: Simulation studies with younger adults. Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition: Section B, Aging, Neuropsychology and Cognition, 22(2), 129-154. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825585.2014.889650
Hasher, L., & Zacks, R. T. (1988). Working memory. comprehension. and aging: A review and a new view. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 22, pp. 193-225). Academic Press.
Heaton, R. K., Chelune, G. J., Talley, J. L., Kay, G. G., & Curtiss, G. (1993). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST): Manual: Revised and expanded. Psychological Assessment Resources.
Herlitz, A., & Viitanen, M. (1991). Semantic organization and verbal episodic memory in patients with mild and moderate Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 13(4), 559-574. https://doi.org/10.1080/01688639108401071
Hilbert, S., Nakagawa, T. T., Puci, P., Zech, A., & Bühner, M. (2015). The digit span backward task: Verbal and visual cognitive strategies in working memory assessment. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 31(2), 174-180. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000223
Howard, D. V., McAndrews, M. P., & Lasaga, M. I. (1981). Semantic priming of lexical decisions in young and old adults. Journal of Gerontology, 36(6), 707-714. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronj/36.6.707
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
Hultsch, D. F. (1974). Learning to learn in adulthood. Journal of Gerontology, 29(3), 302-308. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronj/29.3.302
Kahana, M. J., & Wingfield, A. (2000). A functional relation between learning and organization in free recall. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 7(3), 516-521. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03214365
Kausler, D. H. (1994). Learning and memory in normal aging. Academic Press.
Kilb, A., & Naveh-Benjamin, M. (2007). Paying attention to binding: Further studies assessing the role of reduced attentional resources in the associative deficit of older adults. Memory & Cognition, 35(5), 1162-1174. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193486
Kirchhoff, B. A., Gordon, B. A., & Head, D. (2014). Prefrontal gray matter volume mediates age effects on memory strategies. Neuroimage, 90, 326334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.12.052
Kirchner, W. K. (1958). Age differences in short-term retention of rapidly changing information. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 55(4), 352358. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0043688
Kramer, J. H., Rosen, H. J., Du, A. T., Schuff, N., Hollnagel, C., Weiner, M. W., Miller, B. L., & Delis, D. C. (2005). Dissociations in hippocampal and frontal contributions to episodic memory performance. Neuropsychology, 19(6), 799-805. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.19.6.799
Kuhlmann, B. G., & Touron, D. R. (2016). Aging and memory improvement through semantic clustering: The role of list-presentation format. Psychology and Aging, 31(7), 771-785. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000117
Leon-Domínguez, U., Martín-Rodríguez, J. F., & Leon-Carrion, J. (2015). Executive n-back tasks for the neuropsychological assessment of working memory. Behavioural Brain Research, 292, 167-173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2015.06.002
Light, L. L. (1991). Memory and aging: Four hypotheses in search of data. Annual Review of Psychology, 42(1), 333-376. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.42.020191.002001
Marchal, A., & Nicolas, S. (2003). Normes de production catégorielle pour 38 catégories sémantiques: Étude sur des sujetsjeunes et âgés [Norms for categorical production for 38 semantic categories: Study on younger and older subjects]. L’Année Psychologique, 103(2), 313-366. https://doi.org/10.3406/psy.2003.29639
McCabe, D. P., Roediger, H. L., McDaniel, M. A., Balota, D. A., & Hambrick, D. Z. (2010). The relationship between working memory capacity and executive functioning: Evidence for a common executive attention construct. Neuropsychology, 24(2), 222-243. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017619
Mitchell, K. J., Johnson, M. K., Raye, C. L., Mather, M., & D’Esposito, M. (2000). Aging and reflective processes of working memory: Binding and test load deficits. Psychology and Aging, 15(2), 527-541. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.15.3.527
Miyake, A., & Friedman, N. P. (2012). The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions: Four general conclusions. CurrentDirections in Psychological Science, 21(1), 8-14. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411429458
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “Frontal Lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. CognitivePsychology, 41(1), 49-100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
Mulligan, N. W. (2004). Total retrieval time and hypermnesia: Investigating the benefits of multiple recall tests. Psychological Research, 69(4), 272284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-004-0178-5
Naveh-Benjamin, M. (2000). Adult age differences in memory performance: Tests of an associative deficit hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26(5), 1170-1187. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.26.5.1170
Nyberg, L. (2017). Functional brain imaging of episodic memory decline in ageing. Journal of Internal Medicine, 281(1), 65-74. https://doi.org/10.1111/joim.12533
Oschwald, J., Guye, S., Liem, F., Rast, P., Willis, S., Röcke, C., Jancke, L., Martin, M., & Mérillat, S. (2019). Brain structure and cognitive ability in healthy aging: A review on longitudinal correlated change. Reviews in the Neurosciences, 31(1), 1-57. https://doi.org/10.1515/revneuro-2018-0096
Owen, A. M., Herrod, N. J., Menon, D. K., Clark, J. C., Downey, S. P. M. J., Carpenter, T. A., Minhas, P. S., Turkheimer, F. E., Williams, E. J., Robbins, T. W., Sahakian, B. J., Petrides, M., & Pickard, J. D. (1999). Redefining the functional organization of working memory processes within human lateral prefrontal cortex. The European Journal of Neuroscience, 11(2), 567-574. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1460-9568.1999.00449.x
Owen, A. M., McMillan, K. M., Laird, A. R., & Bullmore, E. (2005). N-back working memory paradigm: A meta-analysis of normative functional neuroimaging studies. Human Brain Mapping, 25(1), 46-59. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.20131
Paivio, A., & Csapo, K. (1973). Picture superiority in free recall: Imagery or dual coding? Cognitive Psychology, 5(2), 176-206. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(73)90032-7
Park, D. C., Smith, A. D., Dudley, W. N., & Lafronza, V. N. (1989). Effects of age and a divided attention task presented during encoding and retrieval on memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15(6),1185-1191. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.15.6T185
Puff, C. R. (1979). Memory organization research and theory: The state of the art. In C. R. Puff (Ed.), Memory organization and structure (pp. 3-17). Academic Press.
Rankin, J. L., Karol, R., & Tuten, C. (1984). Strategy use, recall, and recall organization in young, middle-aged, and elderly adults. Experimental Aging Research, 10(4), 193-196. https://doi.org/10.1080/03610738408258463
Raven, J. (2000). The Raven’s progressive matrices: Change and stability over culture and time. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 1-48. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0735
Raz, N. (2000). Aging of the brain and its impact on cognitive performance: Integration of structural and functional findings. In F. I. M. Craik & T. A. Salthouse (Eds.), The handbook of aging and cognition (pp. 1-90). Lawrence Erlbaum.
Raz, N. (2005). The Aging brain observed in Vivo: Differential changes and their modifiers. In R. Cabeza, L. Nyberg, & D. Park (Eds.), Cognitive neuroscience of aging: Linking cognitive and cerebral aging (pp. 19-57). Oxford University Press.
Reitan, R. M. (1958). Validity of the trail making test as an indicator of organic brain damage. Perceptual andMotorSkills, 8(3), 271-276. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1958.8.3.271
Rey-Mermet, A., Gade, M., Souza, A. S., Von Bastian, C. C., & Oberauer, K. (2019). Is executive control related to working memory capacity and fluid intelligence?. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 148(8), 1335-1372. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000593
Rhodes, S., Greene, N. R., & Naveh-Benjamin, M. (2019). Age-related differences in recall and recognition: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 26(5), 1529-1547. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-019-01649-y
Roenker, D. L., Thompson, C. P., & Brown, S. C. (1971). Comparison of measures for the estimation of clustering in free recall. Psychological Bulletin, 76(1), 45-48. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0031355
Romney, A. K., Brewer, D. D., & Batchelder, W. H. (2016). Predicting clustering from semantic structure. Psychological Science, 4(1), 28-34. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1993.tb00552.x
Rosseel, Y. (2012). lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48(2), 1-36. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02
Salthouse, T. A. (1994). The aging of working memory. Neuropsychology, 8(4), 535-543. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.8.4.535
Salthouse, T. A., Toth, J. P., Hancock, H. E., & Woodard, J. L. (1997). Controlled and automatic forms of memory and attention: Process purity and the uniqueness of age-related influences. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 52(5), 216-228. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/52B.5.P216
Sauzéon, H., Claverie, B., & N’Kaoua, B. (2006). Age differences in the organization and acquisition-forgetting processes in a multi-free-recall task [Online]. Current Psychology Letters: Behaviour, Brain & Cognition, 18. https://doi.org/10.4000/cpl.1012
Sauzéon, H., N’Kaoua, B., Pala, P. A., Taillade, M., Auriacombe, S., & Guitton, P. (2016). Everyday-like memory for objects in ageing and Alzheimer’s disease assessed in a visually complex environment: The role of executive functioning and episodic memory. Journal of Neuropsychology, 10(1), 33-58. https://doi.org/10.1111/jnp.12055
Shing, Y. L., Werkle-Bergner, M., Li, S. C., & Lindenberger, U. (2008). Associative and strategic components of episodic memory: A life-span dissociation. Journal ofExperimental Psychology: General, 137(3), 495513. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.137.3.495
Singmann, H., Bolker, B., Westfall, J., Aust, F., & Ben-Shachar, M. S. (2020). afex: Analysis of Factorial Experiments.
Smithson, M., & Verkuilen, J. (2006). A better lemon squeezer? Maximum likelihood regression with beta-distributed dependent variables. Psychological Methods, 11(1), 54-71. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.11.L54
Sternberg, R. J., & Tulving, E. (1977). The measurement of subjective organization in free recall. Psychological Bulletin, 84(3), 539-556. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.84.3.539
Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18(6), 643-662. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054651
Stuss, D. T., Craik, F. I. M., Sayer, L., Franchi, D., & Alexander, M. P. (1996). Comparison of older people and patients with frontal lesions: Evidence from world list learning. Psychology andAging, 11(3), 387-395. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.11.3.387
Taconnat, L., Baudouin, A., Fay, S., Raz, N., Bouazzaoui, B., El-Hage, W., Isingrini, M., & Ergis, A.-M. (2010). Episodic memory and organizational strategy in free recall in unipolar depression: The role of cognitive support and executive functions. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 32(7), 719-727. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803390903512645
Taconnat, L., Bouazzaoui, B., Bouquet, C., Larigauderie, P., Witt, A., & Blaye, A. (2022). Cognitive mechanisms underlying free recall in episodic memory performance across the lifespan: Testing the control/representa-tion model. Psychological Research. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-022-01736-1
Taconnat, L., Morel, S., Guerrero-Sastoque, L., Frasca, M., & Vibert, N. (2020). What eye movements reveal about strategy encoding of words in younger and older adults. Memory, 28(4), 537-552. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2020.1745848
Taconnat, L., Raz, N., Toczé, C., Bouazzaoui, B., Sauzéon, H., Fay, S., & Isingrini, M. (2009). Ageing and organisation strategies in free recall: The role of cognitive flexibility. The European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 21(2-3), 347-365. https://doi.org/10.1080/09541440802296413
Team R Core. (2021). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
Tulving, E. (1962). Subjective organization in free recall of “unrelated” words. Psychological Review, 69(4), 344-354. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0043150
Tulving, E. (2002). Episodic memory: From mind to brain. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135114
West, R. L., & Thorn, R. M. (2001). Goal-setting, self-efficacy, and memory performance in older and younger adults. Experimental Aging Research, 27(1), 41-65. https://doi.org/10.1080/036107301750046133
Witte, K. L., Freund, J. S., & Brown-Whistler, S. (1993). Adult age differences in free recall and category clustering. Experimental Aging Research, 19(1), 15-28. https://doi.org/10.1080/03610739308253920
Witte, K. L., Freund, J. S., & Sebby, R. A. (1990). Age differences in free recall and subjective organization. Psychology andAging, 5(2), 307-309. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.5.2.307
Yoshimura, T., Osaka, M., Osawa, A., & Maeshima, S. (2021). The classical backward digit span task detects changes in working memory but is unsuitable for classifying the severity of dementia. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2021.1961774
Yuan, P., & Raz, N. (2014). Prefrontal cortex and executive functions in healthy adults: A meta-analysis of structural neuroimaging studies.Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 42,180-192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.02.005
Zaromb, F. M., & Roediger, H. L. (2010). The testing effect in free recall is associated with enhanced organizational processes. Memory & Cognition, 38(8), 995-1008. https://doi.org/10.3758/MC.38.8.995
Zigmond, A. S., & Snaith, R. P. (1983). The hospital anxiety and depression scale. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 67(6), 361-370. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1983.tb09716.x
Zivian, M. T., & Darjes, R. W. (1983). Free recall by in-school and out-ofschool adults: Performance and metamemory. Developmental Psychology, 19(4), 513-520. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.19.4.513
