[en] Between the ages of 6 and 18, children spend between 30 and 42 h a week at school, mostly indoors, where indoor environmental quality is usually deficient and does not favor learning. The difficulty of delivering indoor air quality (IAQ) in learning facilities is related to high occupancy rates and low interaction levels with windows. In non-industrialized countries, as in the cases presented, most classrooms have no mechanical ventilation, due to energy poverty and lack of normative requirements. This fact heavily impacts the indoor air quality and students’ learning outcomes. The aim of the paper is to identify the factors that determine acceptable CO2 concentrations. Therefore, it studies air quality in free-running and naturally ventilated primary schools in Chile, aiming to identify the impact of contextual, occupant, and building design factors, using CO2 concentration as a proxy for IAQ. The monitoring of CO2, temperature, and humidity revealed that indoor air CO2 concentration is above 1400 ppm most of the time, with peaks of 5000 ppm during the day, especially in winter. The statistical analysis indicates that CO2 is dependent on climate, seasonality, and indoor temperature, while it is independent of outside temperature in heated classrooms. The odds of having acceptable concentrations of CO2 are bigger when indoor temperatures are high, and there is a need to ventilate for cooling.
David, M.E., Amey, M.J., (2020) Education at a Glance, , OCED: Paris, France, ISBN 9789264500785
Batterman, S., Su, F.C., Wald, A., Watkins, F., Godwin, C., Thun, G., Ventilation rates in recently constructed U.S. school classrooms (2017) Indoor Air, 27, pp. 880-890. , [CrossRef]
Haddad, S., Osmond, P., King, S., Revisiting thermal comfort models in Iranian classrooms during the warm season (2017) Build. Res. Inf, 45, pp. 457-473. , [CrossRef]
Wargocki, P., Wyon, D.P., Providing better thermal and air quality conditions in school classrooms would be cost-effective (2013) Build. Environ, 59, pp. 581-589. , [CrossRef]
Zhang, D., Bluyssen, P.M., Actions of primary school teachers to improve the indoor environmental quality of classrooms in the Netherlands (2019) Intell. Build. Int, pp. 1-13. , [CrossRef]
Haverinen-Shaughnessy, U., Shaughnessy, R.J., Cole, E.C., Toyinbo, O., Moschandreas, D.J., An assessment of indoor environmental quality in schools and its association with health and performance (2015) Build. Environ, 93, pp. 35-40. , [CrossRef]
Yassin, M.F., Pillai, A.M., Monitoring of volatile organic compounds in different schools: A determinant of the indoor air quality (2019) Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol, 16, pp. 2733-2744. , [CrossRef]
Chithra, V.S., Shiva Nagendra, S.M., A review of scientific evidence on indoor air of school building: Pollutants, sources, health effects and management (2018) Asian J. Atmos. Environ, 12, pp. 87-108. , [CrossRef]
Faustman, E.M., Silbernagel, S.M., Fenske, R.A., Burbacher, T.M., Ponce, R.A., Mechanisms underlying children’s susceptibility to environmental toxicants (2000) Environ. Health Perspect, 108, pp. 13-21
Lucialli, P., Marinello, S., Pollini, E., Scaringi, M., Sajani, S.Z., Marchesi, S., Cori, L., Indoor and outdoor concentrations of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene in some Italian schools evaluation of areas with different air pollution (2020) Atmos. Pollut. Res, 11, pp. 1998-2010. , [CrossRef]
Becerra, J.A., Lizana, J., Gil, M., Barrios-Padura, A., Blondeau, P., Chacartegui, R., Identification of potential indoor air pollutants in schools (2020) J. Clean. Prod, 242, p. 118420. , [CrossRef]
Geiss, O., Giannopoulos, G., Tirendi, S., Barrero-Moreno, J., Larsen, B.R., Kotzias, D., The AIRMEX study–VOC measurements in public buildings and schools/kindergartens in eleven European cities: Statistical analysis of the data (2011) Atmos. Environ, 45, pp. 3676-3684. , [CrossRef]
Safar, A.N., Yassin, M.F., Hamoda, M.F., Indoor and outdoor air concentrations of volatile organic compounds in schools within different urban areas (2019) Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol, 16, pp. 2831-2838. , [CrossRef]
Madureira, J., Paciência, I., Rufo, J., Ramos, E., Barros, H., Teixeira, J.P., de Oliveira Fernandes, E., Indoor air quality in schools and its relationship with children’s respiratory symptoms (2015) Atmos. Environ, 118, pp. 145-156. , [CrossRef]
Chatzidiakou, L., Mumovic, D., Summerfield, A.J., Hong, S.M., Altamirano-Medina, H., A Victorian school and a low carbon designed school: Comparison of indoor air quality, energy performance, and student health (2014) Indoor Built Environ, 23, pp. 417-432. , [CrossRef]
de Gennaro, G., Farella, G., Marzocca, A., Mazzone, A., Tutino, M., Indoor and outdoor monitoring of volatile organic compounds in school buildings: Indicators based on health risk assessment to single out critical issues (2013) Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 10, pp. 6273-6291. , [CrossRef]
Chatzidiakou, L., Mumovic, D., Summerfield, A., Is CO2 a good proxy for indoor air quality in classrooms? Part 1: The interrela-tionships between thermal conditions, CO2 levels, ventilation rates and selected indoor pollutants (2015) Build. Serv. Eng. Res. Technol, 36, pp. 129-161. , [CrossRef]
Chatzidiakou, L., Mumovic, D., Summerfield, A., Is CO2 a good proxy for indoor air quality in classrooms? Part 2: Health outcomes and perceived indoor air quality in relation to classroom exposure and building characteristics (2015) Build. Serv. Eng. Res. Technol, 36, pp. 162-181. , [CrossRef]
Du, B., Tandoc, M., Mack, M.L., Siegel, J.A., Indoor CO2 Concentrations and Cognitive Function: A Critical Review (2020) Indoor Air, 30, pp. 1067-1082. , [CrossRef]
Mishra, A.K., Schiavon, S., Wargocki, P., Tham, K.W., Carbon dioxide and its effect on occupant cognitve performance: A literature review Proceedings of the Windsor Conference, pp. 432-444. , Resilient Comfort, Windsor, UK, 12–16 April 2020
Wargocki, P., Porras-Salazar, J.A., Contreras-Espinoza, S., Bahnfleth, W., The relationships between classroom air quality and children’s performance in school (2020) Build. Environ, 173, p. 106749. , [CrossRef]
Shendell, D.G., Prill, R., Fisk, W.J., Apte, M.G., Blake, D., Faulkner, D., Associations between classroom CO2 concentrations and student attendance in Washington and Idaho (2004) Indoor Air, 14, pp. 333-341. , [CrossRef]
(2018) Building Bulletin 101: Guidance on Ventilation, Thermal Comfort and Indoor Air Quality in Schools, , Education & Skills Funding Agency. Education & Skills Funding Agency: Manchester, UK
(2019) ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2019 Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality, , ASHRAE. American Society of Heating, Refrigerat-ing and Air-Conditioning Engineers: Atlanta, GA, USA
Bakó-Biró, Z., Clements-Croome, D.J., Kochhar, N., Awbi, H.B., Williams, M.J., Ventilation rates in schools and pupils’ performance (2012) Build. Environ, 48, pp. 215-223. , [CrossRef]
Tahsildoost, M., Zomorodian, Z.S., Indoor environment quality assessment in classrooms: An integrated approach (2018) J. Build. Phys, 42, pp. 336-362. , [CrossRef]
Mendell, M.J., Heath, G.A., Do indoor pollutants and thermal conditions in schools influence student performance? A critical review of the literature (2005) Indoor Air, 15, pp. 27-52. , [CrossRef]
Daisey, J.M., Angell, W.J., Apte, M.G., Indoor air quality, ventilation and health symptoms in schools: An analysis of existing information (2003) Indoor Air, 13, pp. 53-64. , [CrossRef]
Chatzidiakou, L., Mumovic, D., Summerfield, A.J., What do we know about indoor air quality in school classrooms? A critical review of the literature (2012) Intell. Build. Int, 4, pp. 228-259. , [CrossRef]
Salleh, N.M., Kamaruzzaman, S.N., Sulaiman, R., Mahbob, N.S., Indoor Air Quality at School: Ventilation Rates and It Impacts Towards Children–A review (2011) Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Evironmental Science and Technology, 6, pp. 418-422. , Singapore, 26–28 February
Mendell, M.J., Eliseeva, E.A., Davies, M.M., Spears, M., Lobscheid, A., Fisk, W.J., Apte, M.G., Association of classroom ventilation with reduced illness absence: A prospective study in California elementary schools (2013) Indoor Air, 23, pp. 515-528. , [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Haverinen-Shaughnessy, U., Moschandreas, D.J., Shaughnessy, R.J., Association between substandard classroom ventilation rates and students’ academic achievement (2011) Indoor Air, 21, pp. 121-131. , [CrossRef]
Toftum, J., Kjeldsen, B.U., Wargocki, P., Menå, H.R., Hansen, E.M.N., Clausen, G., Association between classroom ventilation mode and learning outcome in Danish schools (2015) Build. Environ, 92, pp. 494-503. , [CrossRef]
Gao, J., Wargocki, P., Wang, Y., Ventilation system type, classroom environmental quality and pupils’ perceptions and symptoms (2014) Build. Environ, 75, pp. 46-57. , [CrossRef]
Wargocki, P., Da Silva, N.A.F., Use of visual CO2 feedback as a retrofit solution for improving classroom air quality (2015) Indoor Air, 25, pp. 105-114. , [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Korsavi, S.S., Montazami, A., Mumovic, D., Indoor air quality (IAQ) in naturally-ventilated primary schools in the UK: Occupant-related factors (2020) Build. Environ, 180, p. 106992. , [CrossRef]
Korsavi, S.S., Montazami, A., Mumovic, D., Ventilation rates in naturally ventilated primary schools in the UK.
Contextual, Occupant and Building-related (COB) factors (2020) Build. Environ, 181, p. 107061. , [CrossRef]
Armijo, G., Whitman, C.J., Casals, R., Post-occupancy evaluation of state schools in 5 climatic zones of Chile (2011) Gazi Univ. J. Sci, 24, pp. 365-374
Rivera, M.I., Kwok, A.G., Thermal comfort and air quality in Chilean schools, perceptions of students and teachers (2019) Proceedings of the Architecture for health and Well-Being, pp. 709-718. , Toronto, ON, Canada, 29 May–1 June
Trebilcock, M., Bobadilla, A., Piderit, B., Figueroa, R., Muñoz, C., Sanchez, R., Aguilera, C., Hernández, J., Environmental Performance of Schools in Areas of Cultural Sensitivity Proceedings of the PLEA2012–28th Conference, Opportunities, Limits & Needs Towards an environmentally responsible architecture, pp. 7-12. , Lima, Perú, 7–9 November 2012
Piderit, M., Vivanco, F., van Moeseke, G., Attia, S., Net Zero Buildings—A Framework for an Integrated Policy in Chile (2019) Sustainability, 11, p. 1494. , [CrossRef]
(2007) EN 13779: Ventilation for Non-Residential Buildings–Performance Requirements for Ventilation and Room–Conditioning Systems, , CEN (European Committee for Standardization). European Committee for Standardization: Brussels, Belgium
(2017) EN 16798-3: Energy Performance of Buildings–Ventilation for Buildings–Part 3: For Non-Residential Buildings–Performance Requirements for Ventilation and Room-Conditioning Systems, , CEN (European Committee for Standardization). European Committee for Standardization: Brussels, Belgium
Trebilcock, M., Soto-Muñoz, J., Yañez, M., Figueroa-San Martin, R., The right to comfort: A field study on adaptive thermal comfort in free-running primary schools in Chile (2017) Build. Environ, 114, pp. 455-469. , [CrossRef]
Teli, D., James, P.A.B., Jentsch, M.F., Thermal comfort in naturally ventilated primary school classrooms (2013) Build. Res. Inf, 41, pp. 301-316. , [CrossRef]
Attia, S., Garat, S., Cools, M., Development and validation of a survey for well-being and interaction assessment by occupants in office buildings with adaptive facades (2019) Build. Environ, 157, pp. 268-276. , [CrossRef]
(2012) Decreto 548, , Ministerio de Educación Pública. Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional de Chile: Santiago de Chile, Chile
(2014) Ordenanza General de Urbanismo y Construcción, , Ministerio de Vivienda y Urbanismo. Ministerio de Vivienda y Urbanismo: Santiago de Chile, Chile
Citec, UBB., Decon, UC., (2011) TDRe: Términos de Referencia Estandarizados con Parámetros de Eficiencia Energética y Confort Ambiental, para licitaciones de Diseño y Obra de la Dirección de Arquitectura, Según Zonas Geográficas del país y Según Tipología de Edificios, , Dirección de Arquitectura Ministerio de Obras Públicas, Ed.
Ministerio de Obras Públicas: Santiago de Chile, Chile
(2014) Manual Evaluación y Calificación Energética “Certificación Edificio Sustentable”, , Instituto de la Construcción. Insitituto de la Construcción: Santiago de Chile, Chile, ISBN 9789568070113
Sarricolea, P., Herrera-Ossandon, M., Meseguer-Ruiz, Ó., Climatic regionalisation of continental Chile (2017) J. Maps, 13, pp. 66-73. , [CrossRef]
Fisk, W.J., The ventilation problem in schools: Literature review (2017) Indoor Air, 27, pp. 1039-1051. , [CrossRef]
Korsavi, S.S., Montazami, A., Mumovic, D., Perceived Indoor Air Quality in Naturally Ventilated Primary Schools in the UK: Impact of Environmental Variables and Thermal Sensation (2020) Indoor Air, 31, pp. 480-501. , [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Mumovic, D., Santamouris, M., Chatzidiakou, L., Jones, B., Mumovic, D., Indoor Air Quality and Ventilation Measurement (2018) Handb. Sustain. Build. Des. Eng, pp. 241-258. , [CrossRef]
Clements-Croome, D.J., Awbi, H.B., Bakó-Biró, Z., Kochhar, N., Williams, M., Ventilation rates in schools (2008) Build. Environ, 43, pp. 362-367. , [CrossRef]
