Berti C, Cetin I, Agostoni C, Desoye G, Devlieger R, Emmett PM, et al. Pregnancy and infants' outcome: nutritional and metabolic implications. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2016;56:82-91.
Innis SM. Metabolic programming of long-term outcomes due to fatty acid nutrition in early life. Matern Child Nutr. 2011;7(Suppl 2):112-23.
Mozurkewich E, Berman DR, Chilimigras J. Role of omega-3 fatty acids in maternal, fetal, infant and child wellbeing. Expert Rev Obstet Gynecol. 2010;5:125-38.
Guesnet P, Alessandri J-M, Astorg P, Pifferi F, Lavialle M. Les rôles physiologiques majeurs exercés par les acides gras polyinsaturés (AGPI). Oléagineux Corps Gras Lipides. 2005;12:333-43.
Jump DB. The biochemistry of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. J Biol Chem. 2002;277:8755-8.
Lendvai Á, Deutsch MJ, Plösch T, Ensenauer R. The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors under epigenetic control in placental metabolism and fetal development. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2016;310:E797-810.
McCarthy FP, Drewlo S, English FA, Kingdom J, Johns EJ, Kenny LC, et al. Evidence implicating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor- in the pathogenesis of preeclampsia. Hypertension. 2011;58:882-7.
Lauritzen L, Hansen HS, Jørgensen MH, Michaelsen KF. The essentiality of long chain n-3 fatty acids in relation to development and function of the brain and retina. Prog Lipid Res. 2001;40:1-94.
Clandinin MT, Chappell JE, Leong S, Heim T, Swyer PR, Chance GW. Intrauterine fatty acid accretion rates in human brain: implications for fatty acid requirements. Early Hum Dev. 1980;4:121-9.
Martinez M. Polyunsaturated fatty acids in the developing human brain, red cells and plasma: influence of nutrition and peroxisomal disease. World Rev Nutr Diet. 1994;75:70-8.
Birch EE, Carlson SE, Hoffman DR, Fitzgerald-Gustafson KM, Fu VL, Drover JR, et al. The DIAMOND (DHA intake and measurement of neural development) study: A double-masked, randomized controlled clinical trial of the maturation of infant visual acuity as a function of the dietary level of docosahexaenoic acid. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;91:848-59.
Dunstan JA, Simmer K, Dixon G, Prescott SL. Cognitive assessment of children at age 2(1/2) years after maternal fish oil supplementation in pregnancy: A randomised controlled trial. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2008;93:F45-50.
Hadders-Algra M, Bouwstra H, van Goor SA, Dijck-Brouwer DAJ, Muskiet FAJ. Prenatal and early postnatal fatty acid status and neurodevelopmental outcome. J Perinat Med. 2007;35(Suppl 1):S28-34.
Hibbeln JR, Davis JM, Steer C, Emmett P, Rogers I, Williams C, et al. Maternal seafood consumption in pregnancy and neurodevelopmental outcomes in childhood (ALSPAC study): An observational cohort study. Lancet. 2007;369:578-85.
Imhoff-Kunsch B, Briggs V, Goldenberg T, Ramakrishnan U. Effect of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid intake during pregnancy on maternal, infant, and child health outcomes: A systematic review. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 2012;26(Suppl 1):91-107.
Olsen SF, Secher NJ. Low consumption of seafood in early pregnancy as a risk factor for preterm delivery: prospective cohort study. BMJ. 2002;324:447.
Mehendale S, Kilari A, Dangat K, Taralekar V, Mahadik S, Joshi S. Fatty acids, antioxidants, and oxidative stress in pre-eclampsia. Int J Gynecol Obstet. 2008;100:234-8.
Olsen SF, Secher NJ. A possible preventive effect of low-dose fish oil on early delivery and pre-eclampsia: indications from a 50-year-old controlled trial. Br J Nutr. 1990;64:599-609.
Golding J, Steer C, Emmett P, Davis JM, Hibbeln JR. High levels of depressive symptoms in pregnancy with low omega-3 fatty acid intake from fish. Epidemiology. 2009;20:598-603.
Kremmyda L-S, Vlachava M, Noakes PS, Diaper ND, Miles EA, Calder PC. Atopy risk in infants and children in relation to early exposure to fish, oily fish, or long-chain omega-3 fatty acids: A systematic review. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol. 2011;41:36-66.
Innis SM. Essential fatty acid transfer and fetal development. Placenta. 2005;26(Suppl A):S70-5.
De Vriese SR, Matthys C, De Henauw S, De Backer G, Dhont M, Christophe AB. Maternal and umbilical fatty acid status in relation to maternal diet. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2002;67:389-96.
Krauss-Etschmann S, Shadid R, Campoy C, Hoster E, Demmelmair H, Jiménez M, et al. Effects of fish-oil and folate supplementation of pregnant women on maternal and fetal plasma concentrations of docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid: A European randomized multicenter trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85:1392-400.
Al MD, van Houwelingen AC, Kester AD, Hasaart TH, de Jong AE, Hornstra G. Maternal essential fatty acid patterns during normal pregnancy and their relationship to the neonatal essential fatty acid status. Br J Nutr. 1995;74:55-68.
Otto SJ, Houwelingen AC, Antal M, Manninen A, Godfrey K, López-Jaramillo P, et al. Maternal and neonatal essential fatty acid status in phospholipids: An international comparative study. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1997;51:232-42.
Otto SJ, de Groot RHM, Hornstra G. Increased risk of postpartum depressive symptoms is associated with slower normalization after pregnancy of the functional docosahexaenoic acid status. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2003;69:237-43.
Markhus MW, Rasinger JD, Malde MK, Frøyland L, Skotheim S, Braarud HC, et al. Docosahexaenoic acid status in pregnancy determines the maternal docosahexaenoic acid status 3-, 6- and 12 months postpartum. Results from a Longitudinal Observational Study. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0136409.
Campbell FM, Gordon MJ, Dutta-Roy AK. Preferential uptake of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids by isolated human placental membranes. Mol Cell Biochem. 1996;155:77-83.
Innis SM. Trans fatty intakes during pregnancy, infancy and early childhood. Atheroscler Suppl. 2006;7:17-20.
Elias SL, Innis SM. Infant plasma trans, n-6, and n-3 fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acids are related to maternal plasma fatty acids, length of gestation, and birth weight and length. Am J Clin Nutr. 2001;73:807-14.
Decsi T, Campoy C, Demmelmair H, Szabó E, Marosvölgyi T, Escolano M, et al. Inverse association between trans isomeric and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in pregnant women and their newborns: data from three European countries. Ann Nutr Metab. 2011;59:107-16.
Enke U, Jaudszus A, Schleussner E, Seyfarth L, Jahreis G, Kuhnt K. Fatty acid distribution of cord and maternal blood in human pregnancy: special focus on individual trans fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acids. Lipids Health Dis. 2011;10:247.
Decsi T, Burus I, Molnár S, Minda H, Veitl V. Inverse association between trans isomeric and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in cord blood lipids of full-term infants. Am J Clin Nutr. 2001;74:364-8.
Sun Q, Ma J, Campos H, Hankinson SE, Hu FB. Comparison between plasma and erythrocyte fatty acid content as biomarkers of fatty acid intake in US women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;86:74-81.
Katan MB, Deslypere JP, van Birgelen AP, Penders M, Zegwaard M. Kinetics of the incorporation of dietary fatty acids into serum cholesteryl esters, erythrocyte membranes, and adipose tissue: An 18-month controlled study. J Lipid Res. 1997;38:2012-22.
Fuhrman BJ, Barba M, Krogh V, Micheli A, Pala V, Lauria R, et al. Erythrocyte membrane phospholipid composition as a biomarker of dietary fat. Ann Nutr Metab. 2006;50:95-102.
Harris WS, Thomas RM. Biological variability of blood omega-3 biomarkers. Clin Biochem. 2010;43:338-40.
Ghebremeskel K, Min Y, Crawford MA, Nam JH, Kim A, Koo JN, et al. Blood fatty acid composition of pregnant and nonpregnant Korean women: red cells may act as a reservoir of arachidonic acid and docosahexaenoic acid for utilization by the developing fetus. Lipids. 2000;35:567-74.
Vlaardingerbroek H, Hornstra G. Essential fatty acids in erythrocyte phospholipids during pregnancy and at delivery in mothers and their neonates: comparison with plasma phospholipids. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2004;71:363-74.
Sauvageot N. Validation of the food frequency questionnaire used to assess the association between dietary habits and cardiovascular risk factors in the NESCAV study. J Nutr Food Sci. 2013;3:208.
Sauvageot N, Alkerwi A, Albert A, Guillaume M. Use of food frequency questionnaire to assess relationships between dietary habits and cardiovascular risk factors in NESCAV study: validation with biomarkers. Nutr J. 2013;12:143.
Hercberg S. The SU.VI.MAX study, a randomized, placebo-controlled trial on the effects of antioxidant vitamins and minerals on health. Ann Pharm Fr. 2006;64:397-401.
Harris WS, Von Schacky C. The Omega-3 index: A new risk factor for death from coronary heart disease? Prev Med. 2004;39:212-20.
Fokkema MR, Smit EN, Martini IA, Woltil HA, Boersma ER, Muskiet FAJ. Assessment of essential fatty acid and omega3-fatty acid status by measurement of erythrocyte 20:3omega9 (mead acid), 22:5omega6/20:4omega6 and 22:5omega6/22:6omega3. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2002;67:345-56.
Statistics Belgium. Structure of the population according to nationality. 2016. https://bestat.statbel.fgov.be/bestat/crosstable.xhtml?view=7de30ad3-0871-46ad-af5a-aad2f51969c3.
Streel S, Donneau A-F, Hoge A, Albert A, Schoenen J, Guillaume M. One-year prevalence of migraine using a validated extended French version of the ID MigraineTM: A Belgian population-based study. Rev Neurol (Paris). 2015;171:707-14.
Stewart F, Rodie VA, Ramsay JE, Greer IA, Freeman DJ, Meyer BJ. Longitudinal assessment of erythrocyte fatty acid composition throughout pregnancy and post partum. Lipids. 2007;42:335-44.
Otto SJ, van Houwelingen AC, Badart-Smook A, Hornstra G. Changes in the maternal essential fatty acid profile during early pregnancy and the relation of the profile to diet. Am J Clin Nutr. 2001;73:302-7.
Ogundipe E, Johnson MR, Wang Y, Crawford MA. Peri-conception maternal lipid profiles predict pregnancy outcomes. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2016;114:35-43.
Mennitti LV, Oliveira JL, Morais CA, Estadella D, Oyama LM. Oller do Nascimento CM, et al. type of fatty acids in maternal diets during pregnancy and/or lactation and metabolic consequences of the offspring. J Nutr Biochem. 2015;26:99-111.
Meher A, Randhir K, Mehendale S, Wagh G, Joshi S. Maternal fatty acids and their association with birth outcome: A prospective study. PLoS One. 2016;11:e0147359.
Karamanos B, Thanopoulou A, Anastasiou E, Assaad-Khalil S, Albache N, Bachaoui M, et al. Relation of the Mediterranean diet with the incidence of gestational diabetes. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2014;68:8-13.
Knudsen VK, Orozova-Bekkevold IM, Mikkelsen TB, Wolff S, Olsen SF. Major dietary patterns in pregnancy and fetal growth. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2008;62:463-70.
Timmermans S, Steegers-Theunissen RP, Vujkovic M, den Breeijen H, Russcher H, Lindemans J, et al. The Mediterranean diet and fetal size parameters: the generation R study. Br J Nutr. 2012;108:1399-409.
Chatzi L, Kogevinas M. Prenatal and childhood Mediterranean diet and the development of asthma and allergies in children. Public Health Nutr. 2009;12:1629.
Vujkovic M, Steegers E, Looman C, Ocké M, van der Spek P, Steegers-Theunissen R. The maternal Mediterranean dietary pattern is associated with a reduced risk of spina bifida in the offspring. BJOG. 2009;116:408-15.
de Lorgeril M, Salen P. New insights into the health effects of dietary saturated and omega-6 and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. BMC Med. 2012;10:50.
Imamura F, Micha R, Wu JHY, de Oliveira Otto MC, Otite FO, Abioye AI, et al. Effects of saturated fat, polyunsaturated fat, monounsaturated fat, and carbohydrate on glucose-insulin homeostasis: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled feeding trials. PLoS Med. 2016;13:e1002087.
Magnusardottir AR, Steingrimsdottir L, Thorgeirsdottir H, Hauksson A, Skuladottir GV. Red blood cell n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in first trimester of pregnancy are inversely associated with placental weight. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2009;88:91-7.
Simopoulos AP. The importance of the Omega-6/Omega-3 fatty acid ratio in cardiovascular disease and other chronic diseases. Exp Biol Med. 2008;233:674-88.
Khan AH, Carson RJ, Nelson SM. Prostaglandins in labor - a translational approach. Front Biosci. 2008;13:5794-809.
Harris WS. Omega-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: A case for omega-3 index as a new risk factor. Pharmacol Res. 2007;55:217-23.
von Schacky C. The Omega-3 index as a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat. 2011;96:94-8.
Markhus MW, Skotheim S, Graff IE, Frøyland L, Braarud HC, Stormark KM, et al. Low omega-3 index in pregnancy is a possible biological risk factor for postpartum depression. PLoS One. 2013;8:e67617.
Klebanoff MA, Harper M, Lai Y, Thorp J, Sorokin Y, Varner MW, et al. Fish consumption, erythrocyte fatty acids, and preterm birth. Obstet Gynecol. 2011;117:1071-7.
Ohnishi H, Saito Y. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) reduces cardiovascular events: relationship with the EPA/arachidonic acid ratio. J Atheroscler Thromb. 2013;20:861-77.
Inoue K, Kishida K, Hirata A, Funahashi T, Shimomura I. Low serum eicosapentaenoic acid / arachidonic acid ratio in male subjects with visceral obesity. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2013;10:25.
Maes M, Smith R, Christophe A, Cosyns P, Desnyder R, Meltzer H. Fatty acid composition in major depression: decreased omega 3 fractions in cholesteryl esters and increased C20: 4 omega 6/C20:5 omega 3 ratio in cholesteryl esters and phospholipids. J Affect Disord. 1996;38:35-46.
Bokor S, Dumont J, Spinneker A, Gonzalez-Gross M, Nova E, Widhalm K, et al. Single nucleotide polymorphisms in the FADS gene cluster are associated with delta-5 and delta-6 desaturase activities estimated by serum fatty acid ratios. J Lipid Res. 2010;51:2325-33.
Warensjö E, Rosell M, Hellenius M-L, Vessby B, De Faire U, Risérus U. Associations between estimated fatty acid desaturase activities in serum lipids and adipose tissue in humans: links to obesity and insulin resistance. Lipids Health Dis. 2009;8:37.
Uauy R, Mena P, Wegher B, Nieto S, Salem N. Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid formation in neonates: effect of gestational age and intrauterine growth. Pediatr Res. 2000;47:127-35.
Mahomed K, Williams MA, King IB, Mudzamiri S, Woelk GB. Erythrocyte omega-3, omega-6 and trans fatty acids in relation to risk of preeclampsia among women delivering at Harare maternity hospital. Zimbabwe Physiol Res. 2007;56:37-50.
Williams MA, King IB, Sorensen TK, Zingheim RW, Troyer BL, Zebelman AM, et al. Risk of preeclampsia in relation to elaidic acid (trans fatty acid) in maternal erythrocytes. Gynecol Obstet Investig. 1998;46:84-7.
Decsi T, Boehm G. Trans isomeric fatty acids are inversely related to the availability of long-chain PUFAs in the perinatal period. Am J Clin Nutr. 2013;98:543S-8S.
Cohen JFW, Rifas-Shiman SL, Rimm EB, Oken E, Gillman MW. Maternal trans fatty acid intake and fetal growth. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;94:1241-7.
Morrison JA, Glueck CJ, Wang P. Dietary trans fatty acid intake is associated with increased fetal loss. Fertil Steril. 2008;90:385-90.
Wadhwani NS, Narang AS, Mehendale SS, Wagh GN, Gupte SA, Joshi SR. Reduced maternal erythrocyte long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids exist in early pregnancy in preeclampsia. Lipids. 2016;51:85-94.
Bergmann RL, Haschke-Becher E, Klassen-Wigger P, Bergmann KE, Richter R, Dudenhausen JW, et al. Supplementation with 200 mg/day docosahexaenoic acid from mid-pregnancy through lactation improves the docosahexaenoic acid status of mothers with a habitually low fish intake and of their infants. Ann Nutr Metab. 2008;52:157-66.