Towards understanding the variability in biospheric CO2 fluxes: using FTIR spectrometry and a chemical transport model to investigate the sources and sinks of carbonyl sulfide and its link to CO2
Wang, Y.; Deutscher, N. M.; Palm, Mathiaset al.
2016 • In Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 16, p. 2123-2138
[en] Understanding carbon dioxide (CO2) biospheric processes is of great importance because the terrestrial exchange drives the seasonal and interannual variability of CO2 in the atmosphere. Atmospheric inversions based on CO2 concentration measurements alone can only determine net biosphere fluxes, but not differentiate between photosynthesis (uptake) and respiration (production). Carbonyl sulfide (OCS) could provide an important additional constraint: it is also taken up by plants during photosynthesis but not emitted during respiration, and therefore is a potential means to differentiate between these processes. Solar absorption Fourier Transform InfraRed (FTIR) spectrometry allows for the retrievals of the atmospheric concentrations of both CO2 and OCS from measured solar absorption spectra. Here, we investigate co-located and quasi-simultaneous FTIR measurements of OCS and CO2 performed at five selected sites located in the Northern Hemisphere. These measurements are compared to simulations of OCS and CO2 using a chemical transport model (GEOS-Chem). The coupled biospheric fluxes of OCS and CO2 from the simple biosphere model (SiB) are used in the study. The CO2 simulation with SiB fluxes agrees with the measurements well, while the OCS simulation reproduced a weaker drawdown than FTIR measurements at selected sites, and a smaller latitudinal gradient in the Northern Hemisphere during growing season when comparing with HIPPO (HIAPER Pole-to-Pole Observations) data spanning both hemispheres. An offset in the timing of the seasonal cycle minimum between SiB simulation and measurements is also seen. Using OCS as a photosynthesis proxy can help to understand how the biospheric processes are reproduced in models and to further understand the carbon cycle in the real world.
Disciplines :
Earth sciences & physical geography
Author, co-author :
Wang, Y.
Deutscher, N. M.
Palm, Mathias
Warneke, T.
Notholt, Justus
Baker, I.
Berry, J.
Suntharalingam, P.
Jones, N.
Mahieu, Emmanuel ; Université de Liège > Département d'astrophys., géophysique et océanographie (AGO) > Groupe infra-rouge de phys. atmosph. et solaire (GIRPAS)
Lejeune, Bernard ; Université de Liège > Département d'astrophys., géophysique et océanographie (AGO) > Groupe infra-rouge de phys. atmosph. et solaire (GIRPAS)
Towards understanding the variability in biospheric CO2 fluxes: using FTIR spectrometry and a chemical transport model to investigate the sources and sinks of carbonyl sulfide and its link to CO2
Adler, A. F., Huffman, G. J., Chang, A., Ferraro, R., Xie, P.-P., Janowiak, J., Rudolf, B., Schneider, U., Curtis, S., Bolvin, D., Gruber, A., Susskind, J., Arkin, P., and Nelkin, E.: The Version-2 Global Precipitation Climatology Project (GPCP) Monthly Precipitation Analysis (1979-Present), J. Hydrometeorol., 4, 1147-1167, 2003.
Atkinson, R., Baulch, D. L., Cox, R. A., Hampson Jr., R. F., Kerr, J. A., Rossi, J. M., and Troe J.: Evaluated kinetic, photochemical and heterogeneous data for atmospheric chemistry, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 26, 521-1011, 1997.
Badger, M. R. and Price G. D.: The role of carbonic-anhydrase in photosynthesis, Annu. Rev. Plant Phys., 45, 369-392, 1994.
Baker, D. F., Law, R. M., Gurney, K. R., Rayner, P., Peylin, P., Denning, A. S., Bousquet, P., Bruhwiler, L., Chen, Y.-H., Ciais, P., Fung, I. Y., Heimann, M., John, J., Maki, T., Maksyutov, S., Masarie, K., Prather, M., Pak, B., Taguchi, S., and Zhu, Z.: TransCom 3 inversion intercomparison: Impact of transport model errors on the interannual variability of regional CO2 fluxes, 1988-2003, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 20, GB1002, doi:10.1029/2004GB002439, 2006.
Baker, I. T., Harper, A. B., da Rocha, H. R., Denning, A. S., Araújo, A. C., Borma, L. S., Freitas, H. C., Goulden, M. L., Manzi, A. O., Miller, S. D., Nobre, A. D., Restrepo-Coupe, N., Saleska, S. R., Stöckli, R., von Randow, C., and Wofsy, S. C.: Surface ecophysiological behavior across vegetation and moisture gradients in tropical South America, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 182, 177-188, doi:10.1016/j.agrformet.2012.11.015, 2013.
Barkley, M. P., Palmer, P. I., Boone, C. D., Bernath, P. F., and Suntharalingam, P.: Global distributions of carbonyl sulfide in the upper troposphere and stratosphere, Geophys. Res. Lett, 35, L14810, doi:10.1029/2008GL034270, 2008.
Barthlott, S., Schneider, M., Hase, F., Wiegele, A., Christner, E., González, Y., Blumenstock, T., Dohe, S., García, O. E., Sepúlveda, E., Strong, K., Mendonca, J., Weaver, D., Palm, M., Deutscher, N. M., Warneke, T., Notholt, J., Lejeune, B., Mahieu, E., Jones, N., Griffith, D. W. T., Velazco, V. A., Smale, D., Robinson, J., Kivi, R., Heikkinen, P., and Raffalski, U.: Using XCO2 retrievals for assessing the long-term consistency of NDACC/FTIR data sets, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 8, 1555-1573, doi:10.5194/amt-8-1555-2015, 2015.
Beer, C., Reichstein, M., Tomelleri, E., Ciais, P., Jung, M., Carvalhais, N., Rödenbeck, C., Arain, M. A., Baldocchi, D., Bonan, G. B., Bondeau, A., Cescatti, A., Lasslop, G., Lindroth, A., Lomas, M., Luyssaert, S., Margolis, H., Oleson, K. W., Roupsard, O., Veenendaal, E., Viovy, N., Williams, C., Woodward, F. I., and Papale, D.: Terrestrial gross carbon dioxide uptake: Global Distribution and covariation with climate, Science, 329, 834-838, doi:10.1126/science.1184984, 2010.
Belviso, S., Schmidt, M., Yver, C., Ramonet, M., Gros, V., and Launois, T.: Strong similarities between nighttime deposition velocities of carbonyl sulphide and molecular hydrogen inferred from semi-continuous atmospheric observations in Gif-sur-Yvette, Paris region, Tellus B, 65, 20719, doi:10.3402/tellusb.v65i0.20719, 2013.
Berkelhammer, M., Asaf, D., Still, C., Montzka, S., Noone, D., Gupta, M., Provencal, R., Chen, H., and Yakir, D.: Constraining surface carbon fluxes using in situ measurements of carbonyl sulfide and carbon dioxide, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 28, 161-179, doi:10.1002/2013GB004644, 2014.
Berry, J., Wolf, A., Campbell, J. E., Baker, I., Blake, N., Blake, D., Denning, A. S., Kawa, S. R., Montzka, S. A., Seibt, U., Stimler, K., Yakir, D., and Zhu, Z.: A coupled model of the global cycles of carbonyl sulfide and CO2: a possible new window on the carbon cycle, J. Geophys. Res.-Biogeo., 118, 842-852, 2013.
Bey, I., Jacob, D. J., Yantosca, R. M., Logan, J. A., Field, B. D., Fiore, A. M., Li, Q., Liu, H. Y., Mickley, L. J., and Schultz, M. G.: Global modeling of tropospheric chemistry with assimilated meteorology: Model description and evaluation, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 106, 23073-23095, doi:10.1029/2001JD000807, 2001.
Buschmann, M., Deutscher, N. M., Sherlock, V., Palm, M., Warneke, T., and Notholt, J.: Retrieval of xCO2 from ground-based mid-infrared (NDACC) solar absorption spectra and comparison to TCCON, Atmos. Meas. Tech. Discuss., 8, 10523-10548, doi:10.5194/amtd-8-10523-2015, 2015.
Campbell, J. E., Carmichael, G. R., Chai, T., Mena-Carrasco, M., Tang, Y., Blake, D. R., Vay, S. A., Collatz, G. J., Baker, I., Berry, J. A., Montzka, S. A., Sweney, C., Schnoor, J. L., and Stanier, C. O.: Photosynthetic control of atmospheric carbonyl sulfide during the growing season, Science, 322, 1085-1088, 2008.
Campbell, J. E., Whelan, M. E., Seibt, U., Smith, S. J., Berry, J. A., and Hilton, T. W.: Atmospheric carbonyl sulfide sources from anthropogenic activity: Implications for carbon cycle constraints, Geophys. Res. Lett., 42, 3004-3010, 2015.
Cheng, Y., Zhang, C., Zhang, Y., Zhang, H., Sun, X., and Mu, Y.: Characteristics and anthropogenic sources of carbonyl sulfide in Beijing, J. Environ. Sci., 28, 163-170, doi:10.1016/j.jes.2014.05.052, 2015.
Chin, M. and Davis, D. D.: A reanalysis of carbonyl sulfide as a source of stratospheric background sulfur aerosol, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 8993-9005, 1995.
Corbin, K. D., Denning, A. S., Lu, L., Wang, J.-W., and Baker, I. T.: Possible representation errors in inversions of satellite CO2 retrievals, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D02301, doi:10.1029/2007JD008716, 2008.
Denning, A. S., Collatz, G. J., Zhang, C., Randall, D. A., Berry, J. A., Sellers, P. J., Colello, G. D., and Dazlich, D. A.: Simulation of terrestrial carbon metabolism and atmospheric CO2 in a general circulation model. Part I: Surface carbon fluxes, Tellus B, 48, 521-542, 1996.
Denning, A. S., Nicholls, M., Prihodko, L., Baker, I., Vidale, P.-L., Davis, K., and Bakwin, P.: Simulated variations in atmospheric CO2 over a Wisconsin forest using a coupled ecosystem-atmosphere model, Glob. Change Biol., 9, 1241-1250, 2003.
Evans, J. R., Caemmerer, S. V., Setchell, B. A., and Hudson, G. S.: The relationship between CO2 transfer conductance and leaf anatomy in transgenic tobacco with a reduced content of Rubisco, Aust. J. Plant Physiol., 21, 475-495, 1994.
Fisher, J. B., Sikka, M., Oechel, W. C., Huntzinger, D. N., Melton, J. R., Koven, C. D., Ahlström, A., Arain, M. A., Baker, I., Chen, J. M., Ciais, P., Davidson, C., Dietze, M., El-Masri, B., Hayes, D., Huntingford, C., Jain, A. K., Levy, P. E., Lomas, M. R., Poulter, B., Price, D., Sahoo, A. K., Schaefer, K., Tian, H., Tomelleri, E., Verbeeck, H., Viovy, N., Wania, R., Zeng, N., and Miller, C. E.: Carbon cycle uncertainty in the Alaskan Arctic, Biogeosciences, 11, 4271-4288, doi:10.5194/bg-11-4271-2014, 2014.
Glatthor, N., Höpfner, M., Baker, I. T., Berry, J., Campbell, J. E., Kawa, S. R., Krysztofiak, G., Leyser, A., Sinnhuber B.-M., and Stinecipher, J.: Tropical sources and sinks of carbonyl sulfide observed from space, Geophys. Res. Lett., 42, 10082-10090, doi:10.1002/2015GL066293, 2015.
Goldan, P. D., Fall, R., Kuster, W. C., and Fehsenfeld, F. C.: Uptake of cos by growing vegetation: A major tropospheric sink, J. Geophys. Res., 93, 14186-14192, 1988.
Guo, H., Simpson, I. J., Ding, A. J., Wang, T., Saunders, S. M., Wang, T. J., Cheng, H. R., Barletta, B., Meinardi, S., Blake, D. R., and Rowland, F. S.: Carbonyl sulfide, dimethyl sulfide and carbon disulfide in the Pearl River Delta of southern China: Impact of anthropogenic and biogenic sources. Atmos. Environ., 44, 3805-3813, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2010.06.040, 2010.
Hannigan, J. W., Coffey, M. T., and Goldman, A.: Semiautonomous FTS Observation System for Remote Sensing of Stratospheric and Tropospheric Gases, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 26, 1814-1828, doi:10.1175/2009JTECHA1230.1, 2009.
Huntzinger, D., Post, W., Michelak, A., Wei, Y., Jacobsen, A., West, T. O., Baker, I., Chen, J., Davis, K., Hayes, D., Hoffman, F., Jain, A., Liu, S., McGuire, D., Neilson, R., Poulter, B., Tian, H., Thornton, P., Tomelleri, E., Viovy, N., Xiao, J., Zeng, N., Zhao, M., and Cook, R.: North American Carbon Project (NACP) regional interim synthesis: terrestrial biospheric model intercomparison, Ecol. Model., 232, 144-157, doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2012.02.004, 2012.
Jung, M., Reichstein, M., Margolis, H. A., Cescatti, A., Richardson, A. D., Arain, M. A., Arneth, A., Bernhofer, C., Bonal, D., Chen, J., Gianelle, D., Gobron, N., Kiely, G., Kutsch, W., Lasslop, G., Law, B. E., Lindroth, A., Merbold, L., Montagnani, L., Moors, E. J., Papale, D., Sottocornola, M., Vaccari, F., and Williams, C.: Global patterns of land-atmosphere fluxes of carbon dioxide, latent heat, and sensible heat derived from eddy covariance, satellite, and meteorological observations, J. Geophys. Res., 116, G00J07, doi:10.1029/2010JG001566, 2011.
Keppel-Aleks, G., Wennberg, P. O., and Schneider, T.: Sources of variations in total column carbon dioxide, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 3581-3593, doi:10.5194/acp-11-3581-2011, 2011.
Kettle, A. J., Kuhn, U., von Hobe, M., Kesselmeier, J., and Andreae, M. O.: Global budget of atmospheric carbonyl sulfide: temporal and spatial variations of the dominant sources and sinks, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 107, 4658, doi:10.1029/2002JD002187, 2002a.
Kettle, A. J., Kuhn, U., von Hobe, M., Kesselmeier, J., Liss, P. S., and Andreae, M. O.: Comparing forward and inverse models to estimate the seasonal variation of hemisphere-integrated fluxes of carbonyl sulfide, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 2, 343-361, doi:10.5194/acp-2-343-2002, 2002b.
Kuai, L., Worden, J., Kulawik, S. S., Montzka, S. A., and Liu, J.: Characterization of Aura TES carbonyl sulfide retrievals over ocean, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 7, 163-172, doi:10.5194/amt-7-163-2014, 2014.
Kuai, L, Worden, J. R., Campbell, J. E., Kulawik, S. S., Lee, M., Weidner, R. J., Li, K., Montzka, S. A., Moore, F. L., Berry, J.A., Baker, I., Denning, S., Bian, H., Bowman, K., Liu, J., and Yung, Y.: Estimate of Carbonyl Sulfide Tropical Oceanic Surface Fluxes Using Aura Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer Observations, J. Geosphys. Res.-Atmos., 120, 11012-11023, doi:10.1002/2015JD023493, 2015.
Launois, T., Belviso, S., Bopp, L., Fichot, C. G., and Peylin, P.: A new model for the global biogeochemical cycle of carbonyl sulfide - Part 1: Assessment of direct marine emissions with an oceanic general circulation and biogeochemistry model, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 15, 2295-2312, doi:10.5194/acp-15-2295-2015, 2015a.
Launois, T., Peylin, P., Belviso, S., and Poulter, B.: A new model of the global biogeochemical cycle of carbonyl sulfide - Part 2: Use of carbonyl sulfide to constrain gross primary productivity in current vegetation models, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 15, 9285-9312, doi:10.5194/acp-15-9285-2015, 2015b.
Montzka, S. A., Calvert, P., Hall, B. D., Elkins, J. W., Conway, T. J., Tans, P. P., and Sweeney, C.: On the global distribution, seasonality, and budget of atmospheric carbonyl sulfide (COS) and some similarities to CO2, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 112, D09302, doi:10.1029/2006JD007665, 2007.
Nassar, R., Jones, D. B. A., Suntharalingam, P., Chen, J. M., Andres, R. J., Wecht, K. J., Yantosca, R. M., Kulawik, S. S., Bowman, K. W., Worden, J. R., Machida, T., and Matsueda, H.: Modeling global atmospheric CO2 with improved emission inventories and CO2 production from the oxidation of other carbon species, Geosci. Model Dev., 3, 689-716, doi:10.5194/gmd-3-689-2010, 2010.
Nguyen, B. C., Mihalopoulos, N., Putaud, J. P., and Bonsang, B.: Carbonyl sulfide emissions from biomass burning in the tropics, J. Atmos. Chem., 22, 55-65, 1995.
Nicholls, M. E., Denning, A. S., Prihodko, L., Vidale, P.-L., Baker, I., Davis, K., and Bakwin, P.: A multiple-scale simulation of variations in atmospheric carbon dioxide using a coupled biosphere-atmosphere model, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D18117, doi:10.1029/2003JD004482, 2004.
Notholt, J., Kuang, Z., Rinsland, C. P., Toon, G. C., Rex, M., Jones, N., Albrecht, T., Deckelmann, H., Krieg, J., Weinzierl, C., Bingemer, H., Weller, R., and Schrems, O.: Enhanced upper tropical tropospheric COS: Impact on the stratospheric aerosol layer, Science, 300, 5617, 307-310, doi:10.1126/science.1080320, 2003.
Olsen, S. C. and Randerson, J. T.: Differences between surface and column atmospheric CO2 and implications for carbon cycle research, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D02301, doi:10.1029/2003JD003968, 2004.
Park, R. J., Jacob, D. J., Field, B. D., Yantosca, R. M., and Chin, M.: Natural and transboundary pollution influences on sulfate-nitrate-ammonium aerosols in the United States: Implications for policy, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D15204, doi:10.1029/2003JD004473, 2004.
Protoschill-Krebs, G. and Kesselmeier, J.: Enzymatic pathways for the consumption of carbonyl sulphide (COS) by higher plants, Bot. Acta, 105, 206-212, doi:10.1111/j.1438-8677.1992.tb00288.x, 1992.
Protoschill-Krebs, G., Wilhelm, C., and Kesselmeier, J.: Consumption of carbonyl sulphide (COS) by higher plant carbonic anhydrase (CA), Atmos. Environ., 30, 3151-3156, doi:10.1016/1352-2310(96)00026-X, 1996.
Raich, J. W., Rastetter, E. B., Melillo, J. M., Kicklighter, D. W., Steudler, P. A., Peterson, B. J., Grace, A. L., Moore III, B., and Vorosmarty, C. J.: Potential Net Primary Productivity in South America: Application of a Global Model, Ecol. Appl., 1, 399-429, 1991.
Randall, D. A., Dazlich, D. A., Zhang, C., Denning, A. S., Sellers, P. J., Tucker, C. J., Bounoua, L., Berry, J. A., Collatz, G. J., Field, C. B., Los, S. O., Justice, C. O., and Fung, I.: A revised land surface parameterization (SiB2) for GCMs. Part III: the greening of the Colorado State University General Circulation Model, J. Climate, 9, 738-763, 1996.
Rienecker, M. M., Suarez, M. J., Gelaro, R., Todling, R., Bacmeister, J., Liu, E., Bosilovich, M. G., Schubert, S. D., Takacs, L., Kim, G.-K., Bloom, S., Chen, J., Collins, D., Conaty, A., da Silva, A., Gu, W., Joiner, J., Koster, R. D., Lucchesi, R., Molod, A., Owens, T., Pawson, S., Pegion, P., Redder, C. R., Reichle, R., Robertson, F. R., Ruddick, A. G., Sienkiewicz, M., and Woollen, J.: MERRA: NASA's Modern-Era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications, J. Climate, 24, 3624-3648, 2011.
Rodgers, C. D.: Inverse Methods for Atmospheric Sounding: Theory and Practice, Series Atmospheric, Ocean. Planet. Phys., 2, 238 pp., World Scientific, Singapore, 2000.
Rodgers, C. D. and Connor, B. J.: Intercomparison of remote sounding instruments, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4116, doi:10.1029/2002JD002299, 2003.
Sandoval-Soto, L., Stanimirov, M., von Hobe, M., Schmitt, V., Valdes, J., Wild, A., and Kesselmeier, J.: Global uptake of carbonyl sulfide (COS) by terrestrial vegetation: Estimates corrected by deposition velocities normalized to the uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2), Biogeosciences, 2, 125-132, doi:10.5194/bg-2-125-2005, 2005.
Sato, N., Sellers, P. J., Randall, D. A., Schneider, E. K., Shukla, J., Kinter, J. L., Hou, Y.-T., and Albertazzi, E.: Effects of implementing the Simple Biosphere Model in a General Circulation Model, J. Atmos. Sci., 46, 2757-2782, 1989.
Schwalm, C. R., Williams, C. A., Schaefer, K., Anderson, R., Arain, M. A., Baker, I., Barr, A., Black, T. A., Chen, G. S., Chen, J. M., Ciais, P., Davis, K. J., Desai, A., Dietze, M., Dragoni, D., Fischer, M. L., Flanagan, L. B., Grant, R., Gu, L. H., Hollinger, D., Izaurralde, R. C., Kucharik, C., Lafleur, P., Law, B. E., Li, L. H., Li, Z. P., Liu, S. G., Lokupitiya, E., Luo, Y. Q., Ma, S. Y., Margolis, H., Matamala, R., McCaughey, H., Monson, R. K., Oechel, W. C., Peng, C. H., Poulter, B., Price, D. T., Riciutto, D. M., Riley, W., Sahoo, A. K., Sprintsin, M., Sun, J. F., Tian, H. Q., Tonitto, C., Verbeeck, H., and Verma, S. B.: A model-data intercomparison of CO2 exchange across North America: Results from the North American Carbon Program site synthesis, J. Geophys. Res.-Biogeo., 115, G00H05, doi:10.1029/2009JG001229, 2010.
Sellers, P. J., Mintz, Y., Sud, Y. C., and Dalcher A.: A simple biosphere model (SIB) for use within general-circulation models, J. Atmos. Sci., 43, 505-531, 1986.
Seibt, U., Kesselmeier, J., Sandoval-Soto, L., Kuhn, U., and Berry, J. A.: A kinetic analysis of leaf uptake of COS and its relation to transpiration, photosynthesis and carbon isotope fractionation, Biogeosciences, 7, 333-341, doi:10.5194/bg-7-333-2010, 2010.
Steinbacher, M., Bingemer, H. G., and Schmidt, U.: Measurements of the exchange of carbonyl sulfide (OCS) and carbon disulfide (CS2) between soil and atmosphere in a spruce forest in central Germany. Atmos. Environ., 38, 35, 6043-6052, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2004.06.022, 2004.
Stimler, K., Montzka, S. A., Berry, J. A., Rudich, Y., and Yakir, D.: Relationships between car-bonyl sulfide (COS) and CO2 during leaf gas exchange, New Phytol., 186, 869-878, 2010.
Stimler, K., Berry, J. A., and Yakir, D.: Effects of carbonyl sulfide and carbonic anhydrase on stomatal conductance, Plant Physiol., 158, 524-530, 2012.
Stöckli, R., Rutishauser, T., Dragoni, D., O'Keefe, J., Thornton, P. E., Jolly, M., Lu, L., and Denning, A. S.: Remote sensing data assimilation for a prognostic phenology model, J. Geophys. Res.-Biogeo., 113, G04021, doi:10.1029/2008JG000781, 2008.
Stöckli, R., Rutishauser, T., Baker, I., Körner, C., Liniger, M. A., and Denning, A. S.: A Global Reanalysis of Vegetation Phenology, J. Geophys. Res.-Biogeo., 116, G03020, doi:10.1029/2010JG001545, 2011.
Sun, W., Maseyk, K., Lett, C., and Seibt, U.: A soil diffusion-reaction model for surface COS flux: COSSM v1, Geosci. Model Dev., 8, 3055-3070, doi:10.5194/gmd-8-3055-2015, 2015.
Suntharalingam, P., Spivakovsky, C. M., Logan, J. A., and McElroy, M. B.: Estimating the distribution of terrestrial CO2 sources and sinks from atmospheric measurements: Sensitivity to configuration of the observation network, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4452, doi:10.1029/2002JD002207, 2003.
Suntharalingam, P., Jacob, D. J., Palmer, P. I., Logan, J. A., Yantosca, R. M., Xiao, Y., Evans, M. J., Streets, D. G., Vay, S. L., and Sachse, G. W.: Improved quantification of Chinese carbon fluxes using CO2/CO correlations in Asian outflow, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D18S18, doi:10.1029/2003JD004362, 2004.
Suntharalingam, P., Kettle, A. J., Montzka, S. M., and Jacob, D. J.: Global 3-D model analysis of the seasonal cycle of atmospheric carbonyl sulfide: implications for terrestrial vegetation uptake, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L19801, doi:10.1029/2008GL034332, 2008.
Takahashi, T., Sutherland, S. C., Wanninkhof, R., Sweeney, C., Feely, R. A., Chipman, D. W., Hales, B., Friederich, G., Chavez, F., Sabine, C., Watson, A., Bakker, D. C. E., Schuster, U., Metzl, N., Yoshikawa-Inoue, H., Ishii, M., Midorikawa, T., Nojiri, Y., Körtzinger, A., Steinhoff, T., Hoppema, M., Olafsson, J., Arnarson, T. S., Tilbrook, B., Johannessen, T., Olsen, A., Bellerby, R., Wong, C. S., Delille, B., Bates, N. R., and de Baar, H. J. W.: Climatological mean and decadal change in surface ocean pCO2, and net sea-air CO2 flux over the global oceans, Deep Sea Res. Part II, 56, 554-577, doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2008.12.009, 2009.
Van Diest, H. and Kesselmeier, J.: Soil atmosphere exchange of carbonyl sulfide (COS) regulated by diffusivity depending on waterfilled pore space, Biogeosciences, 5, 475-483, doi:10.5194/bg-5-475-2008, 2008.
Wang, J. W., Denning, A. S., Lu, L., Baker, I. T., Corbin, K. D., and Davis, K. J.: Observations and simulations of synoptic, regional, and local variations in atmospheric CO2, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D0418, doi:10.1029/2006JD007410, 2007.
Weiss, P. S., Johnson, J. E., Gammon, R. H., and Bates, T. S.: Reevaluation of the open ocean source of carbonyl sulfide to the atmosphere, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos, 100, 23083-23092, doi:10.1029/95JD01926, 1995.
Whelan, M. E., Min, D. H., and Rhew, R. C.: Salt marsh vegetation as a carbonyl sulfide (COS) source to the atmosphere, Atmos. Environ., 73, 131-137, 2013.
Wofsy, S. C., Daube, B. C., Jimenez, R., Kort, E., Pittman, J. V., Park, S., Commane, R., Xiang, B., Santoni, G., Jacob, D., Fisher, J., Pickett-Heaps, C., Wang, H., Wecht, K., Wang, Q.-Q., Stephens, B. B., Shertz, S., Watt, A. S. , Romashkin, P., Campos, T., Haggerty, J., Cooper, W. A., Rogers, D., Beaton, S., Hendershot, R., Elkins, J. W., Fahey, D. W., Gao, R. S., Moore, F., Montzka, S. A., Schwarz, J. P., Perring, A. E., Hurst, D., Miller, B. R., Sweeney, C., Oltmans, S., Nance, D., Hintsa, E., Dutton, G., Watts, L. A., Spackman, J. R., Rosenlof, K. H., Ray, E. A., Hall, B., Zondlo, M. A., Diao, M., Keeling, R., Bent, J., Atlas, E. L., Lueb, R., and Mahoney, M. J.: HIPPO NOAA Flask Sample GHG, Halocarbon, and Hydrocarbon Data (R-20121129), Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA, available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.3334/CDIAC/hippo-013(Release 20121129), 2012.
Wunch, D., Toon, G. C., Wennberg, P. O., Wofsy, S. C., Stephens, B. B., Fischer, M. L., Uchino, O., Abshire, J. B., Bernath, P., Biraud, S. C., Blavier, J.-F. L., Boone, C., Bowman, K. P., Browell, E. V., Campos, T., Connor, B. J., Daube, B. C., Deutscher, N. M., Diao, M., Elkins, J. W., Gerbig, C., Gottlieb, E., Griffith, D. W. T., Hurst, D. F., Jiménez, R., Keppel-Aleks, G., Kort, E. A., Macatangay, R., Machida, T., Matsueda, H., Moore, F., Morino, I., Park, S., Robinson, J., Roehl, C. M., Sawa, Y., Sherlock, V., Sweeney, C., Tanaka, T., and Zondlo, M. A.: Calibration of the Total Carbon Column Observing Network using aircraft profile data, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 3, 1351-1362, doi:10.5194/amt-3-1351-2010, 2010.
Wunch, D., Toon, G. C., Blavier, J.-F. L., Washenfelder, R. A., Notholt, J., Connor, B. J., Griffith, D. W. T., Sherlock, V., and Wennberg, P. O.: The Total Carbon Column Observing Network, Philos. T. Roy. Soc. A, 369, 2087-2112, doi:10.1098/rsta.2010.0240, 2011.
Xu, X., Bingemer, H. G., Georgii, H. W., Schmidt, U., and Bartell, U.: Measurements of carbonyl sulfide (COS) in surface seawater and marine air, and estimates of the air-sea flux from observations during two Atlantic cruises, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 106, 3491-3502, doi:10.1029/2000JD900571, 2001.
Xu, X., Bingemer, H. G., and Schmidt, U.: The flux of carbonyl sulfide and carbon disulfide between the atmosphere and a spruce forest, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 2, 171-181, doi:10.5194/acp-2-171-2002, 2002.
Yang, Z., Washenfelder, R. A., Keppel-Aleks, G., Krakauer, N. Y., Randerson, J. T., Tans, P. P., Sweeney, C., and Wennberg, P. O.: New constraints on Northern Hemisphere growing season net flux, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L12807, doi:10.1029/2007GL029742, 2007.
Yevich, R. and Logan, J. A.: An assessment of biofuel use and burning of agricultural waste in the developing world, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 17, 1095, doi:10.1029/2002GB001952, 2003.
Yi, Z. G., Wang, X. M., Sheng, G. Y., Zhang, D. Q., Zhou, G. Y., and Fu, J. M.: Soil uptake of carbonyl sulfide in subtropical forests with different successional stages in south China, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D08302, doi:10.1029/2006JD008048, 2007.
