[en] Navicular bones collected from the four limbs of 95 sound horses were studied. The anatomic bases have been laid down about morphometry of the navicular bones and their variations according to limbs, after corrections have been made for morphologic type, gender, weight, size and age. All the dimensions of the navicular bone (except for the thickness) were larger in the fore limb. This phenomenon probably reflects an attempt to compensate for the greater forces exerted upon the fore limbs during exercise and at rest. Navicular bones collected from the four limbs of 61 sound horses were studied and the anatomic bases were described for histomorphometry of the fore and rear navicular bones. Fore navicular bones possess less cortical bone at the level of the articular surface, as well as at the level of the flexor surface and proximal border, but larger amounts of cancellous bone. Articular and flexor surface cortical bone show a larger porosity in the fore navicular bones and a larger amount of mineralized cartilage. The mineralized portion for distal impar- and collateral sesamoidean ligaments are also larger for the fore navicular bones. Two distinct zones are observed for the flexor surface cortex that have never been reported in the literature before: an external zone, which is mainly composed of poorly remodelled lamellar bone, arranged in a disto-proximal oblique direction, and an internal zone, which is mainly composed of secondary bone, with a latero-medial direction of Haversian canals. Bone architecture is discussed with regard to the mechanic load, encountered by the bone during locomotion.
ADAMS, O.R., 1990. Les boîcries du cheval. Troisième édition. Maloine Ed. Paris, 20-30.
ASQUITH, R.L., and J. KIVIPELTO, 1994: The navicular syndrome. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 14, 408-410.
BACK, W., H. C. SCHAMHARDT, H. H. C. M. SAVELBERG, A. J. VAN DEN BOGERT, G. BRUIN, W. HARTMAN, and A. BARNEVELD, 1995a: How the horse moves. 1. Significance of graphical representations of equine forelimb kinematics. Equine Vet. J. 27, 31-38.
BACK, W., H. C. SCHAMHARDT, H. H. C M. SAVELBERG, A. J. VAN DEN BOGERT, G. BRUIN, W. HARTMAN, and A. BARNEVELD, 1995b: How the horse moves: 2. Significance of graphical representations of equine hindlimb kinematics. Equine Vet. J. 27, 39-45.
BADDELEY, A. J., H. J. G. GUNDERSEN, and L. M. CRUZ-ORIVE., 1986: Estimation of surface area from vertical section. J. Microsc. 142, 259-276.
BANKS, W. J., 1986; Applied Veterinary Histology. Williams and Wilkins; Baltimore, 146-165.
BARONE, R., 1966: Anatomie comparée des mammifères domestiques. Tome premier. Lab. Anat. Ecole Vét. Lyon, 603-624 and 775-776.
BERRY, C. R., R. R. POOL, S. STOVER, T. R. O'BRIEN, and P. D. KOBLIK, 1992: Radiographic/morphologic investigation of radiolucent crescent within the flexor central eminence of the navicular bone in thoroughbreds. Am. J. Vet. Res. 53, 1604-1611.
BUTLER, J. A., C. C. COLLES, S. J. DYSON, S. E. KOLD, and P. W. POULOS, 1993: Clinical Radiology of the Horse. Blackwell Science, 57-69.
CARTER, D. R., 1987: Mechanical loading history and skeletal biology. J Biomechanics 20, 1095-1109.
CARTER, D. R., D. P. FYHRIE, and R. T. WHALEN, 1987: Trabecular bone density and loading history: regulation of connective tissue biology by mechanical energy. J. Biomechan, 20, 785-794.
COLLES, C. M., 1982: Navicular disease and its treatment. In Practice 4, 29-34.
COLLES, C. M., and J. HICKMAN, 1977: The arterial supply of the navicular bone and its variations in navicular disease. Equine. Vet. J. 9, 150-154.
COLLIN, B., 1993: Anatomie du cheval, pp. 73 and 119-121. Derouaux Ordina Ed., Liege.
CRUZ-ORIVE, L. M., and E. R. WEIBEL, 1990: Recent strereological methods for cell biology: a brief survey. Am. J. Physiol. 258, 148-156.
CURREY, J. D., 1988: The effect of porosity and mineral content on the young's modulus of elasticity of compact bone. J. Biomechan. 21, 131-139.
DENOIX, J.M., 1989: Etudes biomécaniques chez le cheval athlète. Méthodes et objectifs actuels. Rec. Méd. Vét. 165, 107-115.
DENOIX, J. M., F. DESBROSSE, and R. PERRIN, 1988: Grille d'interprétation pour l'examen radiographique des pieds chez le cheval. Point Vétérinaire 20, 565-586.
DHEM, A., 1965: Le forage des canaux de Havers. Rev. Chir. Orthop. 51, 583-593.
DIK, K. J., and J. VAN DEN BROEK, 1995: Role of navicular bone shape in the pathogenesis of navicular disease: a radiological study. Equine Vet. J. 27, 390-393.
FROST, H. M., 1964: The laws of bone structure, pp. 13-44 and 117-128. LAM, C.R. (ed.) Thomas, C. C. Springfield, IL, USA.
FROST, H. M., 1987: Bone 'Mass' and the 'Mechanostat': a proposal. Anat Rec. 219, 1-9.
GABRIEL, A., I. CAUDRON, I., D. SERTEYN, and B. COLLIN, 1994: Syndrome naviculaire: anatomic, étiopathogénie, diagnostic et traitement Ann. Méd. Vét. 138, 309-330.
GABRIEL, A., J. DETILLEUX, S. JOLLY, A COULONVAL, B. REMY, I. CAUDRON, D. SERTEYN, and B. COLLIN, 1997a: Etude morphométrique du sabot et du petit sésamoide du cheval. Ann. Méd Vét. 147, 319-340.
GABRIEL, A., J. DETILLEUX, S. JOLLY, C. DOIZE, B. COLLIN, and J.-Y. REGINSTER, 1997b: Morphometrical study of the equine navicular bone. Part II: Comparison between sedentary and athletic horses. J. Anat. (submitted).
GIBSON, L. J., 1985: The mechanical behaviour of cancellous bone. J. Biomechanics 18, 317-328.
GOLDSTEIN, S. A., L. S. MATTHEWS, M. D. JANET, J. L. KUHN, and S. J. HOLLISTER, 1991: Trabecular bone remodelling: an experimental model. J. Biomechan. 24 (suppl 1), 135-150.
GUNDERSEN, H. J. G., and E. B. JENSEN, 1987: The efficiency of systematic sampling in stereology and its prediction. J. Microsc. 147, 229-263.
HICKMAN, J., 1989: Navicular disease - what are we talking about? Equine Vet. J. 21, 395-398.
GUNDERSEN, H. J. G., T. F. BENDTSEN, L. KORBON, L. MARCUSSEN, A. MØLLER, K. NIELSEN, J. R. NYENGAARD, B. PAKKENBERG, F. B. SØRENSEN, A. VESTERBY, and M. J. WEST, 1988: Some new, simple and efficient stereological methods and their use in pathological research and diagnosis. APMIS 96, 379-394.
JEFFCOTT, L. B., S. H. W. BUCKINGHAM, R. N. MCCARTHY, J. C. CLEELAND, E. SCOTTI, and R. N. MCCARTNEY, 1988: Non-invasive measurements of bone: A review of clinical and research applications in the horse. Equine Vet., J. (Suppl.) 6, 71-79.
JENSEN, K. S., Li MOSEKILDE, and LE MOSEKILDE, 1990: A model of vertebral trabecular bone architecture and its mechanical properties. Bone 11, 417-423.
KASER-HOTZ, B., and G. UELTSCHI, 1992: Radiographic appearance of the navicular bone in sound horses. Vet. Radiol. Ultras. 33, 9-17.
LANYON, L. E., 1987: Functional strain in bone tissue as an objective and controlling stimulus for adaptive bone remodelling J. Biomechan. 20, 1083-1093.
LANYON, L. E., 1990: The physiological basis of training the skeleton. Equine Vet J. 9 (suppl.), 8-13.
LANYON, L. E., A. E. GOODSHIP, C. J. PYE, and J. H. MACFIE, 1982: Mechanically adaptive bone remodelling. J. Biomechan. 15, 141-154.
LEACH, D.H., 1993: Treatment and pathogenesis of navicular disease ('syndrome') in horses. Equine Vet. J. 25, 477-480.
LEROY, P., and F. FARNIR, 1995: Méthodes statistiques en Médecine Vétérinaire. Département de Génétique, Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Université de Liège, 152-153.
LÉVEILLÉ, R., 1993: Techniques radiologiques de la boîte cornée et de son contenu. 3rd Geneva Congress of Equine Medicine and Surgery- 3rd Congress of the World Equine Veterinary Association (WEVA), Geneva (CH), 7-11 December, pp. 56-58.
LOCHNER, F. K., D. W. MILNE, E. J. MILLS, and J. J. GROOM, 1980: In vivo and in vitro measurement of tendon strain in the horse. Am. J. Vet. Res. 41, 1929-37.
MACGREGOR, C. M., 1986: Radiographic assessment of navicular bones, based on changes in the distal nutrient foramina. Equine Vet. J. 18, 203-206.
MATHIASEN, F. O., H. J. G. GUNDERSEN, A. B. MAUNSBACH, and E. SKRIVER, 1991: Surface areas of basolateral membranes in renal distal tubules estimated by vertical sections. J. Microsc. 164, 247-261.
MATTFELDT, T., G. MALL, H. GHAREHBAGHI, and P. MOLLER, 1990: Estimation of surface and length with the orientator. J. Microsc. 159, 301-317.
MERKENS, H. W., H. C. SCHAMHARDT, J. V. M. GEERTRUDA VAN OSH, and A. J. VAN DEN BOGERT, 1993: Ground reaction force patterns of Dutch Warmblood horses at normal trot. Equine Vet. J. 25134-137.
MICHEL, R. P., and L. M. CRUZ-ORIVE, 1988: Application of the cavalieri principle and vertical sections method to lung: estimation of volume and pleural surface area. J. Microsc. 150, 117-136.
MOSEKILDE, Li., LE MOSEKILDE, and C. C. DANIELSEN, 1987: Biomechanical competence of vertebral trabecular bone in relation to ash density and age in normal individual. Bone 8, 79-85.
MULLER-GERBL, M., E. SCHULTE, and R. PUTZ, 1987: The thickness of the calcified layer of articular cartilage: a function of the load supported? J. Anat. 154, 103-111.
NICKEL, R., A. SCHUMMER, E. SEIFERLE, J. FREWEIN, H. WILKENS, and K. H. WILLE, 1986: The locomotor system of the domestic mammals. In: NICKEL, R., A. SCHUMMER, and E. SEIFERLE (eds.) The anatomy of the domestic animals Volume 1, pp. 74-75 and 199-200. Verlag P. Parey, Berlin.
ØSTBLOM, L., C. LUND, and F. MELSEN, 1982: Histological study of navicular bone disease. Equine Vet. J. 14, 199-202.
ØSTBLOM, L., C. LUND, and F. MELSEN, 1989: Navicular bone disease: a comparative histomorphometric study. Equine Vet. J. 21, 431-433.
PLEASANT, R. S., G BAKER, J. H. FOREMAN, J A. C. EURELL, and J. M. LOCONSKY, 1993: Intraosseous pressure and pathologic changes in horses with navicular disease. Am. J. Vet. Res. 54, 7-12.
POOL, R. R., D. M. MEAGHER, and S. M. STOVER, 1989: Pathophysiology of navicular syndrome. Vet. Clin. North Am.: Equine Pract. 5, 109-129.
RADIN, E. L., H. G. PARKER, J. W. PUGH, R. S. STEINBERG, I. L. PAUL, and IR. M. ROSE, 1973: Response of joints to impact loading - III. Relationship between trabecular microfractures and cartilage degeneration. J. Biomechanics 6, 51-57.
RATZLAFF, M. H., and K. K. WHITE, 1989: Some biomechanical considerations of navicular disease. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 9, 149-153.
RATZLAFF, M. H., B. D. GRANT, J. M. FRAME, and M. L. HYDE, 1987: Locomotor forces of galloping horses. In: GILLESPIE, J. R., and N. E. ROBINSON (eds.) Equine Exercise Physiology 2, pp. 574-586. ICEEP Publications, Davis.
RIGGS, C. M., and G. P. EVANS, 1990: The microstructural basis of the mechanical properties of equine bone. Equine Vet. Educ. 2, 197-205.
RIJKENHUIZEN, A. B. M., 1989: The arterial supply of the navicular bone and its relation to navicular disease PhD thesis, Utrecht.
RODNEY, J. R., 1969: Biomechanics of Lameness in Horses, pp 77-98 and 181-186. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore.
RUBIN, C. T., 1984: Skeletal strain and the functional significance of bone architecture. Calcif. Tiss. Int. 36, 11-18.
RUBIN, C. T., and L. E. LANYON, 1982: Limb mechanics as a function of speed and gait: a study of functional strains in the radius and tibia of horse and dog. J. exp. Biol. 101, 187-211.
SAS®/STAT, 1990: User's Guide, Version 6, 4th edn, Vol. 2, Cary, NC Ed. USA 493-502 and 891-896.
SAVAGE, C. J, L. C. TIDD, F. MELSEN, L. B. JEFFCOTT, and L. ØSTBLOM, 1991: Bone biopsy in the horse. 2. Evaluation of histomorphometric examination. J. Vet Med. 38, 784-792.
SCHAMHARDT, H. C., H. W. MERKENS, and G. J. V. M. VAN OSH, 1991: Ground reaction force analysis of horses ridden at the walk and trot. In: PERSSON, S. G. B., A. LINDHOLM, and L B. JEFFCOTT (eds.) Equine Exercise Physiology 3, pp. 120-127. ICEEP Publications, Uppsala.
SCHENK, R. K., A. J. OLAH, and W. HERRMANN, 1984: Preparation of calcified tissues for light microscopy. In: DICKSON, G. R. (ed.) Methods of calcified tissue preparation, pp. 1-56. Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam.
SCHRYVER, H.F., D. L. BARTEL, N. LANGRANA, and J. E. LOWE, 1978: Locomotion in the horse: kinematics and external and internal forces in the normal equine digit in the walk and trot. Am. J. Vet. Res. 39, 1728-1733.
VERSCHOOTEN, F., J. ROELS, P. LAMPO, P. DESMET, A. DE MOOR, and T. PICAVET, 1989: Radiographic measurements from the lateromedial projection of the equine foot with navicular disease. Research in Vet. Science 46, 15-21.
WEIBEL, E. R., 1967: Quantitative methods in morphology, pp. 3-20. WEIBEL, E.R., and H. ELIAS (eds.) Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
WEIBEL, E. R., 1992: Stereology in perspective: a mature science evolves. Acta Stereol. 11 (supp 1), 1-13.
WINTZER, H. J., and K. DAMMRICH, 1971: Untersuchungen zur Pathogenese der sog. Strahlbeinlahmheit des Pferdes. Berl. Münch. Tierärzd. Wschr. 84, 221-225.
WRIGHT, I. M., and J. DOUGLAS, 1993: Biomechanical considerations in the treatment of navicular disease. Vet. Rec. 133, 109-114.