Symbolism; Colour; Modern humans; Mousterian; Middle East; Pyrotechnology
Abstract :
[en] Discovery of pigments at Middle Palaeolithic sites is of interest in the context of the ongoing debate
about the tempo and mode of the emergence of modern human behaviour. Here we analyse four
previously undescribed fragments of pigmental material from Es-Skhul shelter, layer B, Israel, McCown
excavations, identified at the Department of Palaeontology, Natural History Museum, London. One of
them is still partially embedded in the hard breccia characteristic of this layer. Inspection of breccia
fragments from layer B has led to the identification of small pieces of red and orange pigmental material
still enclosed in large clasts, further corroborating the attribution of the larger pieces analysed in this
study to layer B. The four objects are studied using optical microscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy
(SEM), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX), X-ray micro-diffraction
(m-XRD), Particle-Induced X-Ray Emission Spectrometry (PIXE), and Proton-Induced Gamma-ray
Emission (PIGE). The specimens display various hues of yellow, orange, red, and one of them presents
a gradual variation of shade from yellow to dark orange. SEM/EDX analysis identifies two specimens
(Skhul 1 and 2) as being composed of iron-rich calcium phosphate, the third (Skhul 3) of potassium-rich
clay with titanium-rich iron oxide inclusions, and the fourth (Skhul 4) of pure iron oxide crystals. TEM/
EDX and m-XRD analysis demonstrate that three pieces (Skhul 1, 2 and 4) were heated to at least 300 C,
a process that has partially or completely dehydrated goethite into haematite and changed their pristine
yellow colour into orange or red. Skhul 3 shows no sign of heating, suggesting that its haematite content
has a geological origin. The different mineral composition of the pieces suggests that they must come
from a variety of sources. This implies that the associated collection strategies included the selection of
materials that differed not only with respect to colour but also with respect to other physical and
chemical properties. Although no formal proof exists that these lumps of pigmental material were
deliberately heated, results obtained are consistent with this explanation.
Disciplines :
Archaeology
Author, co-author :
d'Errico, Francesco
Salomon, Hélène ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Centre européen en archéométrie - Physique nucléaire, atomique et spectroscopie
Vignaud, Colette
Stringer, Chris
Language :
English
Title :
Pigments from the Middle Palaeolithic levels of Es-Skhul (Mount Carmel, Israel)
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