CO2 emission; COVID-19; Cities; Electricity consumption; Madagascar
Abstract :
[en] Several sources related that the electricity sector emits almost a quarter of greenhouse gases each year in the world. It is therefore one of the important sectors to take into account to limit global warming. Indian Ocean cities produce significant CO2 emissions during electricity consumption. Their volume and accuracy remain practically unknown and untested. Indeed, until now, there is no methodology suggested by the researchers to evaluate Fossil Fuel carbon dioxide (FFCO2) emission, and electricity consumption in this region. Aware of these crucial problems, this study was carried out to assess and analyse CO2 emissions coming from Electricity consumption (called Scope2) in 111 cities located in the Indian Ocean from 55 Power plants between 2015 and 2022 (08 years) and in four sectors (Residential, Commercial, Industrial, and On-road). To carry out a good comparison, all the data were grouped into three categories, before the lockdown measures due to COVID-19 (2015–2018); During the COVID-19-induced lockdown period (2019–2020); and after the lockdown period (2021–2022). The results showed that the CO2 emission difference is significant in the residential and commercial sectors. It was observed that CO2 emissions increased in 2019–2022 in the residential, industrial, and on-road sectors whereas, simultaneously during the same period, it decreased in the commercial sector. During the three periods, the CO2 emissions rate was the highest in the residential sector (around 52%), and the least on-road (around 1%). The significant difference in the commercial sector suggests a decrease in electricity consumption during the peak of the pandemic due to reduced business activities. Businesses adapted to new operating conditions, such as reduced hours or enhanced energy efficiency measures, which also contributed to the change in consumption patterns.
Disciplines :
Architecture
Author, co-author :
Nematchoua, Modeste Kameni; School of Informatics, Computing, and Cyber Systems, Northern Arizona University, 1295 S. Knoles Dr., Building 90, room 320, Flagstaff, AZ, 86011, USA. kameni.modeste@yahoo.fr ; Higher Polytechnic School, University of Antsiranana, Antsiranana, Madagascar. kameni.modeste@yahoo.fr ; Department of Physic, Faculty of Sciences, University of Yaounde I, P.O. Box 337, Yaounde, Cameroon. kameni.modeste@yahoo.fr
Orosa, Jose A; Department of N. S. and Marine Engineering, Escuela Técnica Superior de N. y M, University of A Coruña, Paseo de Ronda 51, A Coruna, 15011, Spain
Buratti, Cinza; Department of Engineering, University of Perugia, Via G. Duranti 63, 06125, Perugia, Italy
Attia, Shady ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département ArGEnCo > Techniques de construction des bâtiments
Teller, Jacques ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département ArGEnCo > LEMA (Local environment management and analysis)
Bemanana, Muriel; Higher Polytechnic School, University of Antsiranana, Antsiranana, Madagascar
Akinola, Olatunji; School of Informatics, Computing, and Cyber Systems, Northern Arizona University, 1295 S. Knoles Dr., Building 90, room 320, Flagstaff, AZ, 86011, USA
Bernard, Andrianirina Charles; Science and Technology's Higher Institute, University of Mahajanga, Mahajanga, Madagascar
Sendrahasina, Rakotomalala Minoson; Institute for the Management of Energy (IME), University of Antananarivo, Po Box 566, 101, Antananarivo, Madagascar
Roy, Sambatra Eric Jean; Department of Industrial Engineering, Higher Institute of Technology Antsiranana, 201, Antsiranana, Madagascar
Falisoa, Rafanotsimiva Liva; Department of Industrial Engineering, Higher Institute of Technology Antsiranana, 201, Antsiranana, Madagascar
Jean-Pierre, Messina; Faculty of Architecture and Construction, Notre-Dame du Kasaï University, Kananga, Democratic Republic of Congo
Reiter, Sigrid ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département ArGEnCo > Urbanisme et aménagement du territoire
UNFCCC. The Paris Agreement—What is the Paris Agreement?. https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement (Accessed December 2025).
Toute l’Europe. Union européenne, Chine, États-Unis: Qui émet le plus de gaz à effet de serre ?. https://www.touteleurope.eu/environnement/union-europeenne-chine-etats-unis-qui-emet-le-plus-de-gaz-a-effet-de-serre (Accessed December 2025).
General Commission for Sustainable Development. The carbon footprint of the french remains stable (Datalab, January 2024).
Planète Énergies. Production d’électricité et ses émissions de CO 2. https://www.planete-energies.com (Accessed December 2025).
U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). https://www.eia.gov/ (Accessed December 2025).
International Energy Agency (IEA). World energy outlook. (2023). https://www.iea.org/ (Accessed December 2025).
de Chalendar JA Taggart J Benson SM Tracking emissions in the US electricity system PNAS 2019 116 25501 25508 10.1073/pnas.1912950116
EIA. Hourly electric grid monitor. https://www.eia.gov/electricity/gridmonitor/about (Accessed December 2025).
IEA. Where does Madagascar get its electricity?. https://www.iea.org/countries/madagascar/electricity (Accessed December 2025).
Wang, R. & Tao, S. PKU-CO2: High-resolution mapping of combustion processes. http://inventory.pku.edu.cn/download (Accessed December 2025).
Nematchoua M. K. Comparative analysis of bioclimatic zones Energy 2020 202 117754 10.1016/j.energy.2020.117754
Hossain MA et al. Sustainable blue economy: GHG emissions in 25 Indian ocean nations J. Clean. Prod. 2024 437 140708 10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.140708
Tegtmeier S et al. Atmospheric gas-phase composition over the Indian ocean Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2022 22 6625 6676 2022ACP..22.6625T 1:CAS:528:DC%2BB38XhsVyrs73L 10.5194/acp-22-6625-2022
Peter R Kuttippurath J Chakraborty K Sunanda N Temporal evolution of mid-tropospheric CO2 over the Indian ocean Atmos. Environ. 2021 257 118475 1:CAS:528:DC%2BB3MXhtFKisrzL 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2021.118475
Ryan NA Johnson JX Keoleian GA Comparative assessment of grid electricity emissions models Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016 50 8937 8953 2016EnST..50.8937R 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC28Xht1ylt77L 10.1021/acs.est.5b05216 27499211
Colett JS Kelly JC Keoleian GA Nested electricity allocation protocols J. Ind. Ecol. 2016 20 29 41 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC28Xjt1Sis78%3D 10.1111/jiec.12268
U.S. EPA. Technical support document for eGRID 9th Edition. Washington DC. (2014).
U.S. EPA. AVERT user manual. Washington DC. (2014).
Short, W. et al. Regional energy deployment system (ReEDS) (NREL, 2011).
WattTime API. https://api.watttime.org/faq/ (Accessed December 2025).
EIA. Grid monitor. https://www.eia.gov/electricity/gridmonitor/about (Accessed December 2025).
Shih, C., Cooney, G., Jamieson, M. & Skone, T. J. Grid mix explorer model (NETL, 2015).
Singularity Energy. Open grid emissions. https://docs.singularity.energy/docs (Accessed December 2025).
Garg A Kankal B Shukla PR India’s greenhouse gas emissions and scope 2 electricity emission intensities: trends and drivers Energy Policy 2017 105 407 417
Kanudia A Bhattacharyya S Rao S Variability of grid emission intensities in india: implications for scope 2 reporting Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2020 134 110341
Rahman M Hossain MS Akter S Estimation of electricity-related CO2 emissions in bangladesh: A scope 2 perspective Energy Strategy Reviews 2022 44 100992
Thongboonchoo C Chontanawat J Wiboonchutikula P Industrial electricity consumption and scope 2 CO2 emissions in Thailand J. Clean. Prod. 2019 231 606 617
Nguyen TT Hoang KV Assessing scope 2 emissions from electricity consumption in vietnam: regional and sectoral perspectives Energy Rep. 2021 7 3451 3464
Nematchoua MK Ricciardi P Orosa JA Cinzia Buratti.A detailed study of climate change and some vulnerabilities in Indian ocean: A case of Madagascar Island Sustainable Cities Soc. 2018 41 886 898 10.1016/j.scs.2018.05.040
Rakotondravony, H. A. et al. État des lieux des études de la vulnérabilité à Madagascar: Revue bibliographique (Antananarivo, Madagascar. GIZ, 2018).
Eckstein, D., Künzel, V., Schäfer, L. & Winges M. Global climate risk index 2020. Germanwatch. 5–36 (2020). https://www.germanwatch.org/en/cri (Accessed December 2025).
JIRAMA. https://apua-asea.org/en/page-de-profil-utilisateur/jirama-/profil/ (Accessed December 2025).
Agence Malagasy dePresse. https://www.agencemalagasydepresse.com/economie/jirama-10-000-branchements-en-electricite-et-7-000-en-eau-insatisfaits/. (Accessed December 2025).
Carbon dioxide emissions factors. (2024). https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/carbon-dioxide-emissions-factor. (Accessed December 2025).
Regions & Regions Districts-and Communes of Madagascar. https://www.madacamp.com/Regions,_Districts_and_Communes_of_Madagascar (Accessed December. 2025).
Nematchoua MK Tchinda R Orosa JA Thermal comfort and energy consumption in modern versus traditional buildings in cameroon: A questionnaire-based statistical study Appl. Energy 2014 114 687 699 2014ApEn.114.687N 10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.10.036
Nematchoua MK Ricciardia P Buratti C Statistical analysis of indoor parameters an subjective responses of Building occupants in a hot region of Indian ocean; a case of Madagascar Island Appl. Energy 2017 208 1562 1575 2017ApEn.208.1562N 10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.08.207
ASHRAE. Guideline 14-2002: Measurement of energy and demand savings. Atlanta (ASHRAE, 2002).
Kevin R Gurney P Dass A Kato Bhaskar Mitra & Modeste Kameni Nematchoua. Scope 2 estimates of carbon dioxide emissions from electricity consumption at the US census block group scale Sci. Data | 2024 11 1344 1:CAS:528:DC%2BB2cXivVChtr7P 10.1038/s41597-024-04180-5
Le Quéré C et al. Temporary reduction in daily global CO2 emissions during the COVID-19 forced confinement Nat. Clim. Change 2020 10 7 647 653 2020NatCC.10.647L 1:CAS:528:DC%2BB3cXhtVWiu7%2FE 10.1038/s41558-020-0797-x
Sovacool BK What are we doing here? Analyzing fifteen years of energy scholarship and proposing a social science research agenda Energy Res. Social Sci. 2014 1 1 29 10.1016/j.erss.2014.02.003
International Energy Agency. Key world energy statistics 2021. IEA. (2021). https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/52f66a88-0b63-4ad2-94a5-29d36e864b82/KeyWorldEnergyStatistics2021.pdf (Accessed December 2025).
International Energy Agency (IEA). The impact of the COVID-19 crisis on global energy demand and CO2 emissions. (2020). https://www.iea.org/reports/the-impact-of-the-covid-19-crisis-on-global-energy-demand-and-co2-emissions
BDEW (Bundesverband der Energie- und Wasserwirtschaft). Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on energy consumption in Germany. (2020). https://www.bdew.de/. (Accessed December 2025).
Jeavons, W. The coal question: An inquiry concerning the progress of the nation, and the probable exhaustion of our coal mines (Macmillan, 1865).
Sorrell, S. The rebound effect: Implications of the global energy transition. in Sovacool, B. K., et al. (Eds.) The Palgrave Handbook of Energy Economics 599–616. (Palgrave Macmillan, 2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67398-3_27. (Accessed December 2025).
EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). COVID-19 impact on U.S. CO2 emissions. (2020). https://www.epa.gov/ (Accessed December 2025).
Kuttippurath J Patel VK Gopikrishnan GP Varikoden H Changes in air Quality, meteorology and energy consumption during the COVID-19 lockdown and unlock periods in India Air 2023 1 125 138 10.3390/air1020010
