[en] PURPOSE: Craving, long considered a hallmark of addictive disorders, has increasingly been recognized as a clinically significant phenomenon in eating disorders (ED). Yet, its conceptualization, measurement, and role in ED pathology remain inconsistent and fragmented. This review aimed to map existing knowledge through a systematic review.
METHODS: Searches were conducted in July 2025 in Embase, PsycInfo, and Web of Science. Eligible records were peer-reviewed studies including adults clinically diagnosed with ED. Fifty studies and fifteen reviews met the inclusion criteria.
RESULTS: Most studies examined bulimia nervosa (BN) and binge-eating disorder (BED), while anorexia nervosa (AN) and non-food-related cravings (e.g., exercise, vomiting, purging) were rarely addressed. Definitions of craving varied, sometimes conflating strong desire with loss of control or subsequent behaviors. Theoretical models were inconsistent, often borrowed from addiction research, and rarely integrated neurobiological findings. Craving assessment relied mainly on visual analogue scales (VAS) and the Food Cravings Questionnaire (FCQ), with limited use of qualitative, psychophysiological, or neurocognitive methods. Interventions specifically targeting craving were scarce. Cue exposure therapy (including virtual reality), neurofeedback, and non-invasive brain stimulation-repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)-showed encouraging but mixed effects. Across ED, craving was consistently associated with binge eating, with trait craving emerging as a stronger predictor than state craving.
CONCLUSIONS: Craving is central yet conceptually elusive in ED. Establishing a consensual definition, developing theory-driven and transdiagnostic assessment tools, and expanding research beyond food and binge-related disorders are priorities to advance understanding and improve interventions.
Disciplines :
Psychiatry Treatment & clinical psychology
Author, co-author :
Cornil, Aurélien ✱; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département de Psychologie > Psychologie clinique de l'adulte
Lakritz, C ✱; Département de Psychiatrie et de Neurosciences, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada, Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec, Québec City, QC, Canada. Electronic address: clara.lakritz.1@ulaval.ca
Iceta, S; Département de Psychiatrie et de Neurosciences, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada, Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec, Québec City, QC, Canada. Electronic address: sylvain.iceta.1@ulaval.ca
Flaudias, V; Nantes Université, Laboratoire de Psychologie des Pays de la Loire (LPPL UR 4638), Nantes F-44000, France, Université Clermont Auvergne, LAPSCO (UMR CNRS 6024), Clermont-Ferrand 63000, France, CHU Clermont-Ferrand, Pôle Psychiatrie B, Clermont-Ferrand F-63001, France. Electronic address: valentin.flaudias@uca.fr
✱ These authors have contributed equally to this work.
Language :
English
Title :
Craving in eating disorders: Mapping the concept through a systematic review.
Adler, L., Brown, T.A., Shott, M.E., Swindle, S., Frank, G.K.W., I know I am not out of control, but I just cannot shake the feeling: exploring feeling out of control in eating disorders. Eat. Weight Disord. 27 (2022), 839–845, 10.1007/s40519-021-01211-7.
Alpers, G.W., Tuschen-Caffier, B., Energy and macronutrient intake in bulimia nervosa. Eat. Behav. 5 (2004), 241–249, 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2004.01.013.
American Psychiatric Association, 2013. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition. ed.
American Psychiatric Association, 2022. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision. Washington, DC, US.
Amianto, F., Secci, I., Arletti, L., Davico, C., Abbate Daga, G., Vitiello, B., Obsessive–compulsive symptoms in young women affected with anorexia nervosa, and their relationship with personality, psychopathology, and attachment style. Eat. Weight Disord. Stud. Anorex. Bulim. Obes. 27 (2022), 1193–1207, 10.1007/s40519-021-01252-y.
Amin, L., Halbeisen, G., Braks, K., Huber, T.J., Paslakis, G., The State Urge to be Physically Active-Questionnaire (SUPA-Q): Development and validation of a state measure of activity urges in patients with eating disorders. Brain Behav., 13, 2023, 10.1002/brb3.3220.
Anton, R.F., Obsessive–compulsive aspects of craving: Development of the obsessive compulsive drinking scale. Addiction 95 (2000), 211–217.
Araujo, R.B., Oliveira, M., da, S., Pedroso, R.S., Miguel, A.C., Castro, M. da G.T. de, Craving e dependência química: conceito, avaliação e tratamento. J. Bras. Psiquiatr 57 (2008), 57–63 〈https://doi.org/10.1590/S0047-20852008000100011〉.
Bandura, A., Social learning theory, Social learning theory. 1977, Prentice-Hall, Oxford, England.
Bechara, A., Decision making, impulse control and loss of willpower to resist drugs: a neurocognitive perspective. Nat. Neurosci. 8 (2005), 1458–1463, 10.1038/nn1584.
Boltri, M., Brizzi, G., Brusa, F., Gabutti, C., Cera, G., Scalia, A., Manzo, F., Apicella, E., Castelnuovo, G., Riva, G., Mendolicchio, L., Virtual Reality-Based Running Exposure to Target the Acute Urge to Be Physically Active in Anorexia Nervosa: A Case Series. Neuropsychobiology, 2025, 10.1159/000547031.
Bou Khalil, R., El Hachem, C., Potential role of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in obesity. Eat. Weight Disord. Stud. Anorex. Bulim. Obes. 19 (2014), 403–407, 10.1007/s40519-013-0088-x.
Brockmeyer, T., Schmidt, U., Friederich, H., The ABBA study - approach bias modification in bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial. Trials, 17, 2016, 10.1186/s13063-016-1596-6.
Bruce, K.R., Steiger, H., Young, S.N., Kin, N.M., Israël, M., Lévesque, M., Impact of acute tryptophan depletion on mood and eating-related urges in bulimic and nonbulimic women. J. Psychiatry Neurosci. 34 (2009), 376–382.
Casper, R., Restlessness and an increased urge to move (drive for activity) in anorexia nervosa may strengthen personal motivation to maintain caloric restriction and may augment body awareness and proprioception: a lesson from leptin administration in anorexia nervosa. Front. Psychol., 13, 2022, 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.885274.
Cepeda-Benito, A., Gleaves, D.H., Williams, T.L., Erath, S.A., The development and validation of the state and trait food-cravings questionnaires. Behav. Ther. 31 (2000), 151–173, 10.1016/S0005-7894(00)80009-X.
Chami, R., Reichenberger, J., Cardi, V., Lawrence, N., Treasure, J., Blechert, J., Characterising binge eating over the course of a feasibility trial among individuals with binge eating disorder and bulimia nervosa. Appetite, 164, 2021, 105248, 10.1016/j.appet.2021.105248.
Chao, A.M., Grilo, C.M., Sinha, R., Food cravings, binge eating, and eating disorder psychopathology: exploring the moderating roles of gender and race. Eat. Behav. 21 (2016), 41–47, 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2015.12.007.
Chmiel, J., Kurpas, D., Rybakowski, F., Leszek, J., The Effectiveness of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) in Binge Eating Disorder (BED)-Review and Insight into the Mechanisms of Action. Nutrients, 16, 2024, 10.3390/nu16101521.
Christian, C., Butler, R., Burr, E., Levinson, C., An Intensive time series investigation of the relationships across eating disorder-specific fear responses and behavior urges in partially remitted anorexia nervosa. J. Anxiety Disord., 102, 2024, 10.1016/j.janxdis.2023.102804.
Cinelli, G., Criscuolo, M., Bifone, C., Chianello, I., Castiglioni, M.C., De Lorenzo, A., Di Renzo, L., Tozzi, A.E., Vicari, S., Zanna, V., Food addiction in a group of Italian adolescents diagnosed for eating disorder. Nutrients, 12, 2020, 1524, 10.3390/nu12051524.
Claudino, A., Van den Eynde, F., Stahl, D., Dew, T., Andiappan, M., Kalthoff, J., Schmidt, U., Campbell, I., Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation reduces cortisol concentrations in bulimic disorders. Psychol. Med. 41 (2011), 1329–1336, 10.1017/S0033291710001881.
Collombat, J., Chapron, S.-A., Sarram, S., Fatseas, M., Serre, F., Auriacombe, M., Anorexia nervosa: An addiction? application of the addiction model to eating disorders. A narrative commented review. Encephale 50 (2024), 566–572, 10.1016/j.encep.2024.03.002.
Covidence systematic review software, 2024.
Critical Appraisal Skills Programme, CASP Random Control. Trial Cohort Study Syst. Rev. Qual. Study Cheklists, 2024.
Davis, C., Compulsive Overeating as an Addictive Behavior: Overlap Between Food Addiction and Binge Eating Disorder. Curr. Obes. Rep. 2 (2013), 171–178, 10.1007/s13679-013-0049-8.
Davis, C., Claridge, G., The eating disorders as an addiction: a psychobiological perspective. Addict. Behav. 23 (1998), 463–475.
Davis, K., Drey, N., Gould, D., What are scoping studies? A review of the nursing literature. Int. J. Nurs. Stud. 46 (2009), 1386–1400, 10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2009.02.010.
Domingo-Rodriguez, L., Ruiz de Azua, I., Dominguez, E., Senabre, E., Serra, I., Kummer, S., Navandar, M., Baddenhausen, S., Hofmann, C., Andero, R., Gerber, S., Navarrete, M., Dierssen, M., Lutz, B., Martín-García, E., Maldonado, R., A specific prelimbic-nucleus accumbens pathway controls resilience versus vulnerability to food addiction. Nat. Commun., 11, 2020, 782, 10.1038/s41467-020-14458-y.
El Archi, S., Brunault, P., Ballon, N., Réveillère, C., Barrault, S., Differential association between food craving, food addiction and eating-related characteristics in persons at risk for eating disorders. Eur. Rev. Appl. Psychol., 70, 2020, 100513, 10.1016/j.erap.2019.100513.
Engelberg, M.J., Gauvin, L., Steiger, H., A naturalistic evaluation of the relation between dietary restraint, the urge to binge, and actual binge eating: a clarification. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 38 (2005), 355–360, 10.1002/eat.20186.
Ferrer-García, M., Gutiérrez-Maldonado, J., Pla, J., Riva, G., Andreu-Gracia, A., Dakanalis, A., Fernandez-Aranda, F., Forcano, L., Ribas-Sabaté, J., Riesco, N., Rus-Calafel, M., Sánchez, I., Sanchez-Planell, L., Development of a VR application for binge eating treatment: Identification of contexts and cues related to bingeing behavior in Spanish and Italian patients. Annu. Rev. Cyber Telemed. 12 (2014), 71–75.
Ferrer-García, M., Gutiérrez-Maldonado, J., Pla-Sanjuanelo, J., Vilalta-Abella, F., Riva, G., Clerici, M., Ribas-Sabaté, J., Andreu-Gracia, A., Fernandez-Aranda, F., Forcano, L., Riesco, N., Sánchez, I., Escandón-Nagel, N., Gomez-Tricio, O., Tena, V., Dakanalis, A., A randomised controlled comparison of second-level treatment approaches for treatment-resistant adults with bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder: assessing the benefits of virtual reality cue exposure therapy. Eur. Eat. Disord. Rev. J. Eat. Disord. Assoc. 25 (2017), 479–490, 10.1002/erv.2538.
Ferrer-García, M., Pla-Sanjuanelo, J., Dakanalis, A., Vilalta-Abella, F., Riva, G., Fernandez-Aranda, F., Sánchez, I., Ribas-Sabaté, J., Andreu-Gracia, A., Escandón-Nagel, N., Gomez-Tricio, O., Tena, V., Gutiérrez-Maldonado, J., Eating behavior style predicts craving and anxiety experienced in food-related virtual environments by patients with eating disorders and healthy controls. Appetite 117 (2017), 284–293, 10.1016/j.appet.2017.07.007.
Flaudias, V., Heeren, A., Brousse, G., Maurage, P., Toward a triadic approach to craving in addictive disorders: the metacognitive hub model. Harv. Rev. Psychiatry 27 (2019), 326–331, 10.1097/HRP.0000000000000225.
Forester, G., Schaefer, L.M., Johnson, J.S., Richson, B.N., Dvorak, R.D., Crosby, R.D., Peterson, C.B., Wonderlich, S.A., Evaluating the role of binge planning and binge inevitability within affect regulation models of binge eating. Appetite, 203, 2024, 10.1016/j.appet.2024.107719.
Gay, A., Cabe, J., De Chazeron, I., Lambert, C., Defour, M., Bhoowabul, V., Charpeaud, T., Tremey, A., Llorca, P.-M., Pereira, B., Brousse, G., Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) as a promising treatment for craving in stimulant drugs and behavioral addiction: a meta-analysis. J. Clin. Med., 11, 2022, 10.3390/jcm11030624.
Gendall, K.A., Sullivan, P.F., Joyce, P.R., Fear, J.L., Bulik, C.M., Psychopathology and personality of young women who experience food cravings. Addict. Behav. 22 (1997), 545–555, 10.1016/S0306-4603(96)00060-3.
Graap, H., Erim, Y., Paslakis, G., The effect of dronabinol in a male patient with anorexia nervosa suffering from severe acute urge to be physically active. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 51 (2018), 180–183, 10.1002/eat.22804.
Grall-Bronnec, M., Sauvaget, A., The use of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for modulating craving and addictive behaviours: a critical literature review of efficacy, technical and methodological considerations. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 47 (2014), 592–613, 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.10.013.
Grilo, C., Ivezaj, V., Yurkow, S., Tek, C., Gueorguieva, R., Cognitive-behavioral therapy and lisdexamfetamine, alone and combined, for binge-eating disorder: secondary outcomes of a randomized controlled trial. Int. J. Eat. Disord., 2025, 10.1002/eat.24502.
Halbeisen, G., Amin, L., Braks, K., Huber, T.J., Paslakis, G., Acute activity urges predict lower early weight gain during inpatient treatment for anorexia nervosa. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 57 (2024), 2452–2460, 10.1002/eat.24305.
Halbeisen, G., Timmesfeld, N., Paslakis, G., Reducing the urge to be physically active in patients with anorexia nervosa through virtual reality: protocol for a randomised-controlled feasibility trial. BMJ Open, 15, 2025, 10.1136/bmjopen-2024-097886.
Hall, P., Vincent, C., Burhan, A., Non-invasive brain stimulation for food cravings, consumption, and disorders of eating: a review of methods, findings and controversies. Appetite 124 (2018), 78–88, 10.1016/j.appet.2017.03.006.
Hasin, D.S., Fenton, M.C., Beseler, C., Park, J.Y., Wall, M.M., Analyses related to the development of DSM-5 criteria for substance use related disorders: 2. Proposed DSM-5 criteria for alcohol, cannabis, cocaine and heroin disorders in 663 substance abuse patients. Drug Alcohol Depend. 122 (2012), 28–37, 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.09.005.
Hormes, J.M., The clinical significance of craving across the addictive behaviors: a review. Curr. Addict. Rep. 4 (2017), 132–141, 10.1007/s40429-017-0138-y.
Hormes, J.M., Rozin, P., Does “craving” carve nature at the joints? Absence of a synonym for craving in many languages. Addict. Behav. 35 (2010), 459–463, 10.1016/j.addbeh.2009.12.031.
Iceta, S., Bégin, C., Food Addiction in Anorexia Nervosa. Gearhardt, A.N., Brownell, K.D., Gold, S., M., Potenza, M.N., (eds.) Food & Addiction: A Comprehensive Handbook, 2024, Oxford University Press, 0, 10.1093/oso/9780190671051.003.0012.
Ince, B., Schlatter, J., Max, S., Plewnia, C., Zipfel, S., Giel, K., Schag, K., Can we change binge eating behaviour by interventions addressing food-related impulsivity? A systematic review. J. Eat. Disord., 9, 2021, 10.1186/s40337-021-00384-x.
Jansen, A., A learning model of binge eating: Cue reactivity and cue exposure. Behav. Res. Ther. 36 (1998), 257–272, 10.1016/S0005-7967(98)00055-2.
Kavanagh, D.J., Andrade, J., May, J., Imaginary relish and exquisite torture: the elaborated intrusion theory of desire. Psychol. Rev. 112 (2005), 446–467, 10.1037/0033-295X.112.2.446.
Kaye, W.H., Wierenga, C.E., Bailer, U.F., Simmons, A.N., Wagner, A., Bischoff-Grethe, A., Does a shared neurobiology for foods and drugs of abuse contribute to extremes of food ingestion in anorexia and bulimia nervosa?. Biol. Psychiatry Food Addict. ? 73 (2013), 836–842, 10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.01.002.
Kennedy, S.H., Katz, R., Ford, C.G., Ralevski, E., Changes in perceptions and emotions before and after refeeding in anorexia nervosa: A pilot study. Ir. J. Psychol. Med. 11 (1994), 57–63, 10.1017/S0790966700012337.
Kober, H., Mell, M.M., Neural mechanisms underlying craving and the regulation of craving. Wiley Handb. Cogn. Neurosci. Addict., 2015, 195–218.
Leenaerts, N., Vaessen, T., Sunaert, S., Ceccarini, J., Vrieze, E., How negative affect does and does not lead to binge eating—The importance of craving and negative urgency in bulimia nervosa. J. Psychopathol. Clin. Sci. 132 (2023), 621–633, 10.1037/abn0000830.
Lopez-Guerrero, J., Navas, J.F., Perales, J.C., Rivero, F.J., Muela, I., The Interrelation Between Emotional Impulsivity, Craving, and Symptoms Severity in Behavioral Addictions and Related Conditions: a Theory-Driven Systematic Review. Curr. Addict. Rep., 2023, 10.1007/s40429-023-00512-4.
Macía, L., Momeñe López, J., Macía, P., Herrero, M., Jauregui, P., Iruarrizaga, I., Estévez, A., Latent classes of eating disorders and addictions by sex: Implication of alexithymia and stressful life events in youths. Front. Psychol., 14, 2023, 1088595, 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1088595.
Mallorquí-Bagué, N., Lozano-Madrid, M., Testa, G., Vintró-Alcaraz, C., Sánchez, I., Riesco, N., Perales, J.C., Navas, J.F., Martínez-Zalacaín, I., Megías, A., Granero, R., Heras, M.V.D.L., Chami, R., Jiménez-Murcia, S., Fernández-Formoso, J.A., Treasure, J., Fernández-Aranda, F., Clinical and neurophysiological correlates of emotion and food craving regulation in patients with anorexia nervosa. J. Clin. Med., 9, 2020, 10.3390/jcm9040960.
Maranhão, M.F., Estella, N.M., Cury, M.E.G., Amigo, V.L., Picasso, C.M., Berberian, A., Campbell, I., Schmidt, U., Claudino, A.M., The effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in obese females with binge eating disorder: a protocol for a double-blinded, randomized, sham-controlled trial. BMC Psychiatry, 15, 2015, 194, 10.1186/s12888-015-0569-8.
Max, S.M., Schag, K., Giel, K.E., Plewnia, C., Behavioural biases in the interaction with food objects in virtual reality and its clinical implication for binge eating disorder. Eat. Weight Disord. EWD, 28, 2023, 46, 10.1007/s40519-023-01571-2.
Mehra, A., Sharma, N., Grover, S., Pagophagia in a female with recurrent depressive disorder: a case report with review of literature. Türk Psikiyatr. Derg. 29 (2018), 1–4.
Mercer, M., Holder, M., Food cravings, endogenous opioid peptides, and food intake: a review. APPETITE 29 (1997), 325–352, 10.1006/appe.1997.0100.
Meule, A., Twenty years of the food cravings questionnaires: a comprehensive review. Curr. Addict. Rep. 7 (2020), 30–43, 10.1007/s40429-020-00294-z.
Meule, A., Küppers, C., Harms, L., Friederich, H.-C., Schmidt, U., Blechert, J., Brockmeyer, T., Food cue-induced craving in individuals with bulimia nervosa and binge-eating disorder. PLoS ONE, 13, 2018, 8, 10.1371/journal.pone.0204151.
Moreno, S., Rodríguez, S., Fernandez, M.C., Tamez, J., Cepeda-Benito, A., Clinical validation of the trait and state versions of the food craving questionnaire. Assessment 15 (2008), 375–387, 10.1177/1073191107312651.
Nederkoorn, C., Smulders, F., Havermans, R., Jansen, A., Exposure to binge food in bulimia nervosa: Finger pulse amplitude as a potential measure of urge to eat and predictor of food intake. Appetite 42 (2004), 125–130, 10.1016/j.appet.2003.11.001.
Neudeck, P., Florin, I., Tuschen-Caffier, B., Food exposure in patients with bulimia nervosa. Psychother. Psychosom. 70 (2001), 193–200, 10.1159/000056253.
Nøkleby, H., Comorbid drug use disorders and eating disorders — a review of prevalence studies. Nord. Stud. Alcohol Drugs 29 (2012), 303–314, 10.2478/v10199-012-0024-9.
Nourredine, M., Jurek, L., Auffret, M., Iceta, S., Grenet, G., Kassai, B., Cucherat, M., Rolland, B., Efficacy and safety of topiramate in binge eating disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. CNS Spectr. 26 (2021), 459–467, 10.1017/S1092852920001613.
Nourredine, M., Jurek, L., Angerville, B., Longuet, Y., de Ternay, J., Derveaux, A., Rolland, B., Use of Topiramate in the Spectrum of Addictive and Eating Disorders: A Systematic Review Comparing Treatment Schemes, Efficacy, and Safety Features. CNS Drugs 35 (2021), 177–213, 10.1007/s40263-020-00780-y.
de Oliveira, J., Cordàs, T.A., The body asks and the mind judges: Food cravings in eating disorders. Encephale 46 (2020), 269–282, 10.1016/j.encep.2020.01.003.
Osman, J.L., Sobal, J., Chocolate cravings in American and Spanish individuals: Biological and cultural influences. Appetite 47 (2006), 290–301.
Page, M.J., McKenzie, J.E., Bossuyt, P.M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T.C., Mulrow, C.D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J.M., Akl, E.A., Brennan, S.E., The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. bmj, 372, 2021, 10.1136/bmj.n71.
Paslakis, G., Fauck, V., Röder, K., Rauh, E., Rauh, M., Erim, Y., Virtual reality jogging as a novel exposure paradigm for the acute urge to be physically active in patients with eating disorders: Implications for treatment. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 50 (2017), 1243–1246, 10.1002/eat.22768.
Pereira, T.D.S., Mocellin, M.C., Curioni, C.C., Association between ultraprocessed foods consumption, eating disorders, food addiction and body image: a systematic review. BMJ Open, 14, 2024, e091223, 10.1136/bmjopen-2024-091223.
Pieters, G., Vansteelandt, K., Claes, L., Probst, M., Van Mechelen, I., Vandereycken, W., The usefulness of experience sampling in understanding the urge to move in anorexia nervosa. Acta Neuropsychiatr. 18 (2006), 30–37, 10.1111/j.0924-2708.2006.00121.x.
Pla-Sanjuanelo, J., Ferrer-García, M., Gutiérrez-Maldonado, J., Riva, G., Andreu-Gracia, A., Dakanalis, A., Fernandez-Aranda, F., Forcano, L., Ribas-Sabaté, J., Riesco, N., Rus-Calafell, M., Sánchez, I., Sanchez-Planell, L., Identifying specific cues and contexts related to bingeing behavior for the development of effective virtual environments. Appetite 87 (2015), 81–89, 10.1016/j.appet.2014.12.098.
Pla-Sanjuanelo, J., Ferrer-Garcia, M., Gutiérrez-Maldonado, J., Vilalta-Abella, F., Andreu-Gracia, A., Dakanalis, A., Fernandez-Aranda, F., Fusté-Escolano, A., Ribas-Sabaté, J., Riva, G., Saldaña, C., Sánchez, I., Trait and state craving as indicators of validity of VR-based software for binge eating treatment. Annu. Rev. Cyber Telemed. 13 (2015), 141–146.
Pla-Sanjuanelo, J., Ferrer-García, M., Vilalta-Abella, F., Gutiérrez-Maldonado, J., Andreu-Gracia, A., Dakanalis, A., Escandón-Nagel, N., Fernandez-Aranda, F., Gomez-Tricio, O., Ribas-Sabaté, J., Riva, G., Sánchez, I., Tena, V., Using virtual reality for cue-exposure therapy in a case of bulimia nervosa. Annu. Rev. Cyber Telemed. 14 (2016), 155–160.
Pla-Sanjuanelo, J., Ferrer-Garcia, M., Vilalta-Abella, F., Riva, G., Dakanalis, A., Ribas-Sabaté, J., Andreu-Gracia, A., Fernandez-Aranda, F., Sánchez, I., Escandón-Nagel, N., Gomez-Tricio, O., Tena, V., Gutierrez-Maldonado, J., VR-based cue-exposure therapy (VR-CET) versus VR-CET plus pharmacotherapy in the treatment of bulimic-type eating disorders. Annu. Rev. Cyber Telemed. 15 (2017), 116–122.
Pla-Sanjuanelo, J., Ferrer-García, M., Vilalta-Abella, F., Riva, G., Dakanalis, A., Ribas-Sabaté, J., Andreu-Gracia, A., Fernandez-Aranda, F., Sanchez-Diaz, I., Escandón-Nagel, N., Gomez-Tricio, O., Tena, V., Gutiérrez-Maldonado, J., Testing virtual reality-based cue-exposure software: Which cue-elicited responses best discriminate between patients with eating disorders and healthy controls?. Eat. Weight Disord. 24 (2019), 757–765, 10.1007/s40519-017-0419-4.
Rachid, F., Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in the treatment of eating disorders: a review of safety and efficacy. Psychiatry Res 269 (2018), 145–156, 10.1016/j.psychres.2018.08.013.
Rancourt, D., Ahlich, E., Levine, J.A., Lee, M.S., Schlauch, R., Applying a multidimensional model of craving to disordered eating behaviors: development of the food approach and avoidance questionnaire. Psychol. Assess. 31:6 (2019), 751–764, 10.1037/pas0000697.
Ray, L.A., Courtney, K.E., Bacio, G., MacKillop, J., The Assessment of Craving in Addiction Research. in: The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Addiction Psychopharmacology, 2013, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 345–380, 10.1002/9781118384404.ch13.
Rogers, P.J., Food and drug addictions: Similarities and differences. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 153 (2017), 182–190, 10.1016/j.pbb.2017.01.001.
Rosch, S.A., Schmidt, R., Hilbert, A., Predictors of neurofeedback treatment outcome in binge-eating disorder: An exploratory study. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 56 (2023), 2283–2294, 10.1002/eat.24062.
Rosenberg, H., Chapter 40 - Defining and Assessing Drug Craving. Miller, P.M., (eds.) Principles of Addiction, 2013, Academic Press, San Diego, 381–393, 10.1016/B978-0-12-398336-7.00040-1.
Rouach, V., Bloch, M., Rosenberg, N., Gilad, S., Limor, R., Stern, N., Greenman, Y., The acute ghrelin response to a psychological stress challenge does not predict the post-stress urge to eat. Psychoneuroendocrinology 32 (2007), 693–702, 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2007.04.010.
Sayette, M.A., Shiffman, S., Tiffany, S.T., Niaura, R.S., Martin, C.S., Schadel, W.G., The measurement of drug craving. Addiction 95 (2000), 189–210.
Sommer, L., Halbeisen, G., Erim, Y., Paslakis, G., Two of a Kind? Mapping the Psychopathological Space between Obesity with and without Binge Eating Disorder. Nutrients, 13, 2021, 10.3390/nu13113813.
Steiger, H., Lehoux, P.M., Gauvin, L., Impulsivity, dietary control and the urge to binge in bulimic syndromes. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 26 (1999), 261–274, 10.1002/(SICI)1098-108X(199911)26:3%253C261::AID-Eat%253E3.3.CO;2-P.
Stramba-Badiale, C., Mancuso, V., Cavedoni, S., Pedroli, E., Cipresso, P., Riva, G., Transcranial magnetic stimulation meets virtual reality: the potential of integrating brain stimulation with a simulative technology for food addiction. Front. Neurosci., 14, 2020, 10.3389/fnins.2020.00720.
Stritzke, W., Mcevoy, P.M., Wheat, L.R., Dyer, K.R., French, D., The Yin and Yang of Indulgence and Restraint: the ambivalence model of craving. Paul, W.O., (eds.) Motivation of Health Behavior, N/A, 2007, Nova Science Publishers, United States, 31–47.
Sutoh, C., Koga, Y., Kimura, H., Kanahara, N., Numata, N., Hirano, Y., Matsuzawa, D., Iyo, M., Nakazato, M., Shimizu, E., Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation changes cerebral oxygenation on the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in bulimia nervosa: A near-infrared spectroscopy pilot study. Eur. Eat. Disord. Rev. 24 (2016), 83–88, 10.1002/erv.2413.
Tasca, G.A., Illing, V., Balfour, L., Krysanski, V., Demidenko, N., Nowakowski, J., Bissada, H., Psychometric properties of self-monitoring of eating disorder urges among treatment seeking women: Ecological momentary assessment using a daily diary method. Eat. Behav. 10 (2009), 59–61, 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2008.10.004.
Taylor, M., A review of food craving measures. Eat. Behav. 32 (2019), 101–110, 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2019.01.005.
Tiffany, S.T., A cognitive model of drug urges and drug-use behavior: Role of automatic and nonautomatic processes. Psychol. Rev. 97 (1990), 147–168, 10.1037/0033-295X.97.2.147.
Tiffany, S.T., Carter, B.L., Is craving the source of compulsive drug use?. ResearchGate 12 (1998), 23–30, 10.1177/026988119801200104.
Van den Eynde, F., Koskina, A., Syrad, H., Guillaume, S., Broadbent, H., Campbell, I.C., Schmidt, U., State and trait food craving in people with bulimic eating disorders. Eat. Behav. 13 (2012), 414–417, 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2012.07.007.
Van den Eynde, F., Giampietro, V., Simmons, A., Uher, R., Andrew, C.M., Harvey, P.-O., Campbell, I.C., Schmidt, U., Brain responses to body image stimuli but not food are altered in women with bulimia nervosa. BMC Psychiatry, 13, 2013, 10.1186/1471-244X-13-302.
Van der Wallin, W.G., Norring, C., Holmgren, S., Binge eating versus nonpurged eating in bulimics: Is there a carbohydrate craving after all?. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 89 (1994), 376–381.
Vansteelandt, K., Rijmen, F., Pieters, G., Probst, M., Vanderlinden, J., Drive for thinness, affect regulation and physical activity in eating disorders: A daily life study. Behav. Res. Ther. 45 (2007), 1717–1734, 10.1016/j.brat.2006.12.005.
Vaz-Leal, F.J., Ramos-Fuentes, M.I., Rodríguez-Santos, L., Álvarez-Mateos, M.C., Vaz-Leal, F.J., Ramos-Fuentes, M.I., Rodríguez-Santos, L., Álvarez-Mateos, M.C., Eating Disorders as New Forms of Addiction. in: Eating Disorders - A Paradigm of the Biopsychosocial Model of Illness, 2017, IntechOpen, 10.5772/65248.
Verzijl, C.L., Gius, B., Schlauch, R., Rancourt, D., The transdiagnostic role of food craving: An application of substance use models. Appetite, 170, 2022, 10.1016/j.appet.2021.105867.
Waters, A., Hill, A., Waller, G., Internal and external antecedents of binge eating episodes in a group of women with bulimia nervosa. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 29 (2001), 17–22, 10.1002/1098-108X(200101)29:1%253C17::AID-Eat%253E3.0.CO;2-R.
Waters, A., Hill, A., Waller, G., Bulimics’ responses to food cravings: Is binge-eating a product of hunger or emotional state?. Behav. Res. Ther. 39 (2001), 877–886, 10.1016/S0005-7967(00)00059-0.
Weingarten, H.P., Elston, D., The phenomenology of food cravings. Appetite 15 (1990), 231–246, 10.1016/0195-6663(90)90023-2.
Werle, D., Sablottny, L., Ansorge, U., Biehl, S., Tuschen-Caffier, B., Svaldi, J., Attention to food stimuli in binge eating disorder: Electrophysiological evidence. Appetite, 203, 2024, 10.1016/j.appet.2024.107682.
Whatnall, M., Skinner, J., Leary, M., Burrows, T., Food Addiction: a Deep Dive into “Loss of Control” and “Craving. Curr. Addict. Rep. 9 (2022), 318–325, 10.1007/s40429-022-00431-w.
White, M.A., Whisenhunt, B.L., Williamson, D.A., Greenway, F.L., Netemeyer, R.G., Development and validation of the food-craving inventory. Obes. Res. 10 (2002), 107–114, 10.1038/oby.2002.17.
Wiers, R.W., Gladwin, T.E., Hofmann, W., Salemink, E., Ridderinkhof, K.R., Cognitive bias modification and cognitive control training in addiction and related psychopathology: mechanisms, clinical perspectives, and ways forward. Clin. Psychol. Sci. 1 (2013), 192–212, 10.1177/2167702612466547.
Wolz, I., Sauvaget, A., Granero, R., Mestre-Bach, G., Baño, M., Martín-Romera, V., Veciana de Las Heras, M., Jiménez-Murcia, S., Jansen, A., Roefs, A., Fernández-Aranda, F., Subjective craving and event-related brain response to olfactory and visual chocolate cues in binge-eating and healthy individuals. Sci. Rep., 7, 2017, 41736, 10.1038/srep41736.
Zeganadin, L., Lopez-Castroman, J., Auriacombe, M., Luquiens, A., Systematic review of patient contribution to the development of alcohol craving measurements. Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res. 48 (2024), 1637–1656.
