Establishing industry-based benchmarks for embodied carbon in buildings: A statistical analysis of 85 case studies in China

This research presents a comprehensive statistical analysis of embodied carbon intensities across 85 diverse building projects in China, encompassing residential, prefabricated, factory, office, school, medical, and villa buildings. The analysis evaluates the contributions of concrete, steel reinforcement, and concrete blocks, which collectively dominate the structural carbon footprint, with a focus on the material production phase within a cradle-to-gate boundary. The results reveal significant variations in embodied carbon intensities, ranging from 199.9 to 339.5 kgCO₂e/m² across building types, with high-rise office buildings exhibiting the highest intensities. Concrete and steel reinforcement collectively account for up to 90% of emissions, highlighting critical material hotspots. Additionally, the study quantifies the substantial carbon impact of basements and formworks—often overlooked in carbon assessments—finding that basement emissions can constitute up to 70% of total embodied carbon. By establishing statistical benchmarks and identifying key drivers, this study proposes the application pathway for these benchmarks in low-carbon building practices, providing a robust foundation for developing targeted carbon reduction strategies in building design and construction. The findings offer essential insights for policymakers, designers, and industry stakeholders aiming to implement low-carbon building practices and support China’s climate targets.