Ecological and socio-cultural determinants of human-macaque (Macaca fascicularis) conflicts in Bali

Anthropogenic transformation of natural environments has increased human-wildlife interface zones, leading to escalating conflicts with synanthropic species like the long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis). Despite thriving in human-modified habitats and relying on anthropogenic food sources, the species is now classified as endangered on the IUCN Red List. The present study aimed to (1) map and characterize human-macaque conflicts in Bali (Indonesia), comparing protected and unprotected areas, and (2) identify spatial, ecological, and socio-cultural factors driving these conflicts. We used a multidisciplinary approach that combined spatial analysis, questionnaire surveys, and behavioral studies of two macaque groups. Data were collected across 22 sites in Bali between 2023 and 2024 using the Participatory Risk Mapping method and through a focused case study of macaque behavior in a rural village bordering the Bali Barat National Park. Results showed that Balinese perceptions of macaques are generally positive but vary by area type, with more negative attitudes in protected zones. Conflicts related to crop and property raiding were widespread, while property damage and human disturbance were concentrated in tourist areas. Key landscape factors influencing conflicts included proximity to human infrastructure, agricultural land cover, and distance to rivers. Socio-culturally, farmers affected by crop raiding expressed more negative perceptions than other groups. Surprisingly, tolerance was lower in protected areas, suggesting
that agroforestry systems may play a role in conflict dynamics. Behavioral observations
indicated adult male macaques were more involved in conflicts than adult females or juveniles. Villages and cultivated fields emerged as conflict hotspots among microhabitats, whereas roads, forests, and fallow lands promote more neutral interactions between macaques and humans. This study highlights the complex interplay of spatial, ecological, and socio-cultural factors in human-macaque conflicts. Understanding these dynamics is essential for developing informed mitigation strategies involving local communities, especially in protected and agricultural areas.