planetary systems; planets and satellites: formation; planets and satellites: individual: HIP 29442; planets and satellites: interiors; techniques: photometric; Internal structure; Neptune; Planet and satellite: individual: HIP 29442; Planetary system; Planets and satellites: formation; Planets and satellites: individual; Planets and satellites: interiors; Radii distribution; Techniques: photometric; Testing grounds; Astronomy and Astrophysics; Space and Planetary Science; astro-ph.EP
Abstract :
[en] Multiplanetary systems spanning the radius valley are ideal testing grounds for exploring the different proposed explanations for the observed bimodality in the radius distribution of close-in exoplanets. One such system is HIP 29442 (TOI-469), an evolved K0V star hosting two super-Earths and one sub-Neptune. We observed HIP 29442 with CHEOPS for a total of 9.6 days, which we modelled jointly with two sectors of TESS data to derive planetary radii of 3.410 ± 0.046, 1.551 ± 0.045, and 1.538 ± 0.049 R? for planets b, c, and d, which orbit HIP 29442 with periods of 13.6, 3.5, and 6.4 days, respectively. For planet d this value deviates by more than 3s from the median value reported in the discovery paper, leading us to conclude that caution is required when using TESS photometry to determine the radii of small planets with low per-transit signal-to-noise ratios and large gaps between observations. Given the high precision of these new radii, combining them with published RVs from ESPRESSO and HIRES provides us with ideal conditions to investigate the internal structure and formation pathways of the planets in the system. We introduced the publicly available code plaNETic, a fast and robust neural network-based Bayesian internal structure modelling framework. We then applied hydrodynamic models to explore the upper atmospheric properties of these inferred structures. Finally, we identified planetary system analogues in a synthetic population generated with the Bern model for planet formation and evolution. Based on this analysis, we find that the planets likely formed on opposing sides of the water iceline from a protoplanetary disk with an intermediate solid mass. We finally report that the observed parameters of the HIP 29442 system are compatible with a scenario where the second peak in the bimodal radius distribution corresponds to sub-Neptunes with a pure H/He envelope and with a scenario with water-rich sub-Neptunes.
Disciplines :
Space science, astronomy & astrophysics
Author, co-author :
Egger, J.A. ; Weltraumforschung und Planetologie, Physikalisches Institut, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
Osborn, H.P. ; Center for Space and Habitability, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland ; Department of Physics, Kavli Institute for Astrophysics and Space Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, United States
Kubyshkina, D.; Space Research Institute, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Graz, Austria
Mordasini, C. ; Weltraumforschung und Planetologie, Physikalisches Institut, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland ; Center for Space and Habitability, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
Alibert, Y. ; Weltraumforschung und Planetologie, Physikalisches Institut, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland ; Center for Space and Habitability, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
Günther, M.N. ; European Space Agency (ESA), European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESTEC), Noordwijk, Netherlands
Lendl, M. ; Observatoire Astronomique, Université de Genève, Versoix, Switzerland
Brandeker, A. ; Department of Astronomy, Stockholm University, AlbaNova University Center, Stockholm, Sweden
Heitzmann, A. ; Observatoire Astronomique, Université de Genève, Versoix, Switzerland
Leleu, A. ; Weltraumforschung und Planetologie, Physikalisches Institut, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland ; Observatoire Astronomique, Université de Genève, Versoix, Switzerland
Damasso, M. ; INAF, Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino, Torinese, Italy
Bonfanti, A. ; Space Research Institute, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Graz, Austria
Wilson, T.G. ; Department of Physics, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
Sousa, S.G. ; Instituto de Astrofisica e Ciencias do Espaco, Universidade do Porto, CAUP, Porto, Portugal
Haldemann, J. ; Weltraumforschung und Planetologie, Physikalisches Institut, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
Delrez, L. ; Astrobiology Research Unit, Université de Liège, Liège, Belgium ; Space sciences, Technologies and Astrophysics Research (STAR) Institute, Université de Liège, Liège, Belgium ; Institute of Astronomy, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
Zingales, T. ; Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia 'Galileo Galilei', Università degli Studi di Padova, Padova, Italy ; INAF, Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova, Padova, Italy
Luque, R.; Department of Astronomy & Astrophysics, University of Chicago, Chicago, United States
Alonso, R. ; Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, La Laguna, Spain ; Departamento de Astrofísica, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Spain
Asquier, J.; European Space Agency (ESA), European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESTEC), Noordwijk, Netherlands
Bárczy, T. ; Admatis, Miskolc, Hungary
Navascues, D.Barrado ; Depto. de Astrofísica, Centro de Astrobiología (CSIC-INTA), Madrid, Spain
Barros, S.C.C. ; Instituto de Astrofisica e Ciencias do Espaco, Universidade do Porto, CAUP, Porto, Portugal ; Departamento de Fisica e Astronomia, Faculdade de Ciencias, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
Baumjohann, W. ; Space Research Institute, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Graz, Austria
Benz, W. ; Weltraumforschung und Planetologie, Physikalisches Institut, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland ; Center for Space and Habitability, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
Billot, N. ; Observatoire Astronomique, Université de Genève, Versoix, Switzerland
Borsato, L. ; INAF, Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova, Padova, Italy
Broeg, C. ; Weltraumforschung und Planetologie, Physikalisches Institut, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland ; Center for Space and Habitability, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
Buder, M.; Institute of Optical Sensor Systems, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Berlin, Germany
Castro-González, A. ; Depto. de Astrofísica, Centro de Astrobiología (CSIC-INTA), Madrid, Spain
Cameron, A.Collier ; Centre for Exoplanet Science, SUPA School of Physics and Astronomy, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom
Correia, A.C.M. ; CFisUC, Department of Physics, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
Cortes, D. ; AIRBUS DS Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Csizmadia, Sz ; Institute of Planetary Research, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Berlin, Germany
Cubillos, P.E.; Space Research Institute, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Graz, Austria ; INAF, Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino, Pino Torinese To, Italy
Davies, M.B. ; Centre for Mathematical Sciences, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
Deleuil, M. ; Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, CNES, LAM, Marseille, France
Deline, A.; Observatoire Astronomique, Université de Genève, Versoix, Switzerland
Demangeon, O.D.S. ; Instituto de Astrofisica e Ciencias do Espaco, Universidade do Porto, CAUP, Porto, Portugal ; Departamento de Fisica e Astronomia, Faculdade de Ciencias, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
Demory, B.-O. ; Weltraumforschung und Planetologie, Physikalisches Institut, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland ; Center for Space and Habitability, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
Derekas, A. ; ELTE Gothard Astrophysical Observatory, Szombathely, Hungary
Edwards, B.; SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research, Leiden, Netherlands
Ehrenreich, D. ; Observatoire Astronomique, Université de Genève, Versoix, Switzerland ; Centre Vie dans l'Univers, Faculté des sciences, Université de Genève, Genève 4, Switzerland
Erikson, A.; Institute of Planetary Research, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Berlin, Germany
Fortier, A. ; Weltraumforschung und Planetologie, Physikalisches Institut, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland ; Center for Space and Habitability, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
Fossati, L. ; Space Research Institute, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Graz, Austria
Fridlund, M. ; Leiden Observatory, University of Leiden, Leiden, Netherlands ; Department of Space, Earth and Environment, Chalmers University of Technology, Onsala Space Observatory, Onsala, Sweden
Gandolfi, D. ; Dipartimento di Fisica, Università degli Studi di Torino, Torino, Italy
Gazeas, K.; National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Department of Physics, Athens, Greece
Gillon, Michaël ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département d'astrophysique, géophysique et océanographie (AGO)
Güdel, M.; Department of Astrophysics, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
Helling, Ch.; Space Research Institute, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Graz, Austria ; Institute for Theoretical Physics and Computational Physics, Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria
Isaak, K.G. ; European Space Agency (ESA), European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESTEC), Noordwijk, Netherlands
Kiss, L.L.; Konkoly Observatory, Research Centre for Astronomy and Earth Sciences, Budapest, Hungary ; ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Institute of Physics, Budapest, Hungary
Korth, J. ; Lund Observatory, Division of Astrophysics, Department of Physics, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
Lam, K.W.F. ; Institute of Planetary Research, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Berlin, Germany
Laskar, J. ; IMCCE, UMR8028 CNRS, Observatoire de Paris, PSL Univ., Sorbonne Univ., Paris, France
Lavie, B. ; Observatoire Astronomique, Université de Genève, Versoix, Switzerland
des Etangs, A.Lecavelier ; Institut d'astrophysique de Paris, UMR7095 CNRS, Université Pierre & Marie Curie, Paris, France
Lovis, C.; Observatoire Astronomique, Université de Genève, Versoix, Switzerland
Luntzer, A.; Department of Astrophysics, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
Magrin, D. ; INAF, Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova, Padova, Italy
Maxted, P.F.L. ; Astrophysics Group, Lennard Jones Building, Keele University, Staffordshire, United Kingdom
Merín, B. ; European Space Agency, ESA - European Space Astronomy Centre, Madrid, Spain
Munari, M. ; INAF, Osservatorio Astrofisico di Catania, Catania, Italy
Nascimbeni, V. ; INAF, Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova, Padova, Italy
Olofsson, G. ; Department of Astronomy, Stockholm University, AlbaNova University Center, Stockholm, Sweden
Ottensamer, R.; Department of Astrophysics, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
Pagano, I. ; INAF, Osservatorio Astrofisico di Catania, Catania, Italy
Pallé, E. ; Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, La Laguna, Spain ; Departamento de Astrofísica, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Spain
Peter, G. ; Institute of Optical Sensor Systems, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Berlin, Germany
Piazza, D.; Weltraumforschung und Planetologie, Physikalisches Institut, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
Piotto, G. ; Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia 'Galileo Galilei', Università degli Studi di Padova, Padova, Italy ; INAF, Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova, Padova, Italy
Pollacco, D. ; Department of Physics, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
Queloz, D. ; Cavendish Laboratory, JJ Thomson Avenue, Cambridge, United Kingdom ; ETH Zurich, Department of Physics, Zurich, Switzerland
Ragazzoni, R. ; Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia 'Galileo Galilei', Università degli Studi di Padova, Padova, Italy ; INAF, Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova, Padova, Italy
Rando, N.; European Space Agency (ESA), European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESTEC), Noordwijk, Netherlands
Rauer, H. ; Institute of Planetary Research, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Berlin, Germany ; Institut fuer Geologische Wissenschaften, Freie Universitaet Berlin, Berlin, Germany
Ribas, I. ; Institut de Ciencies de l'Espai (ICE, CSIC), Bellaterra, Spain ; Institut d'Estudis Espacials de Catalunya (IEEC), Barcelona, Spain
Rodrigues, J. ; Instituto de Astrofisica e Ciencias do Espaco, Universidade do Porto, CAUP, Porto, Portugal ; Departamento de Fisica e Astronomia, Faculdade de Ciencias, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
Santos, N.C. ; Instituto de Astrofisica e Ciencias do Espaco, Universidade do Porto, CAUP, Porto, Portugal ; Departamento de Fisica e Astronomia, Faculdade de Ciencias, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
Scandariato, G. ; INAF, Osservatorio Astrofisico di Catania, Catania, Italy
Ségransan, D. ; Observatoire Astronomique, Université de Genève, Versoix, Switzerland
Simon, A.E. ; Weltraumforschung und Planetologie, Physikalisches Institut, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland ; Center for Space and Habitability, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
Smith, A.M.S. ; Institute of Planetary Research, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Berlin, Germany
Stalport, Manu ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Unités de recherche interfacultaires > Space sciences, Technologies and Astrophysics Research (STAR)
Sulis, S. ; Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, CNES, LAM, Marseille, France
Szabó, Gy M. ; ELTE Gothard Astrophysical Observatory, Szombathely, Hungary ; HUN-REN-ELTE Exoplanet Research Group, Szombathely, Hungary
Udry, S. ; Observatoire Astronomique, Université de Genève, Versoix, Switzerland
Van Grootel, Valérie ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département d'astrophysique, géophysique et océanographie (AGO) > Astrophysique stellaire théorique et astérosismologie
Venturini, J. ; Observatoire Astronomique, Université de Genève, Versoix, Switzerland
Villaver, E.; Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, La Laguna, Spain ; Departamento de Astrofísica, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Spain
Walton, N.A. ; Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
We thank the anonymous referee for valuable comments that helped improve the manuscript. We further thank Nicolas Kaufmann, Andrin Kessler, Jeanne Davoult, Jesse Weder and Remo Burn for productive discussions about the Bern model. CHEOPS is an ESA mission in partnership with Switzerland with important contributions to the payload and the ground segment from Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. The CHEOPS Consortium would like to gratefully acknowledge the support received by all the agencies, offices, universities, and industries involved. Their flexibility and willingness to explore new approaches were essential to the success of this mission. CHEOPS data analysed in this article will be made available in the CHEOPS mission archive ( https://cheops.unige.ch/archive_browser/ ). This work has been carried out within the framework of the NCCR PlanetS supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation under grants 51NF40_182901 and 51NF40_205606. Y.Al. acknowledges support from the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF) under grant 200020_192038. M.N.G. is the ESA CHEOPS Project Scientist and Mission Representative, and as such also responsible for the Guest Observers (GO) Programme. MNG does not relay proprietary information between the GO and Guaranteed Time Observation (GTO) Programmes, and does not decide on the definition and target selection of the GTO Programme. M.L. acknowledges support of the Swiss National Science Foundation under grant number PCEFP2_194576. A.Br. was supported by the SNSA. T.Wi. acknowledges support from the UKSA and the University of Warwick. S.G.S. acknowledge support from FCT through FCT contract nr. CEECIND/00826/2018 and POPH/FSE (EC). The Portuguese team thanks the Portuguese Space Agency for the provision of financial support in the framework of the PRODEX Programme of the European Space Agency (ESA) under contract number 4000142255. J.H. acknowledges the support from the Swiss National Science Foundation under grant 200021_204847 \u2018PlanetsInTime\u2019. The Belgian participation to CHEOPS has been supported by the Belgian Federal Science Policy Office (BELSPO) in the framework of the PRODEX Program, and by the University of Li\u00E8ge through an ARC grant for Concerted Research Actions financed by the Wallonia-Brussels Federation. L.D. thanks the Belgian Federal Science Policy Office (BELSPO) for the provision of financial support in the framework of the PRODEX Programme of the European Space Agency (ESA) under contract number 4000142531. L.Bo., G.Br., V.Na., I.Pa., G.Pi., R.Ra., G.Sc., V.Si., and T.Zi. acknowledge support from CHEOPS ASI-INAF agreement no. 2019-29-HH.0. T.Zi. acknowledges NVIDIA Academic Hardware Grant Program for the use of the Titan V GPU card and the Italian MUR Departments of Excellence grant 2023-2027 \u201CQuantum Frontiers\u201D. We acknowledge financial support from the Agencia Estatal de Investigaci\u00F3n of the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovaci\u00F3n MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and the ERDF \u201CA way of making Europe\u201D through projects PID2019-107061GB-C61, PID2019-107061GB-C66, PID2021-125627OB-C31, and PID2021-125627OB-C32, from the Centre of Excellence \u201CSevero Ochoa\u201D award to the Instituto de Astrof\u00EDsica de Canarias (CEX2019-000920-S), from the Centre of Excellence \u201CMar a de Maeztu\u201D award to the Institut de Ci\u00E8ncies de l\u2019Espai (CEX2020-001058-M), and from the Generalitat de Catalunya/CERCA programme. We acknowledge financial support from the Agencia Estatal de Investigaci\u00F3n of the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovaci\u00F3n MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and the ERDF \u201CA way of making Europe\u201D through projects PID2019-107061GB-C61, PID2019-107061GB-C66, PID2021-125627OB-C31, and PID2021-125627OB-C32, from the Centre of Excellence \u201CSevero Ochoa\u201D award to the Instituto de Astrof\u00EDsica de Canarias (CEX2019-000920-S), from the Centre of Excellence \u201CMar\u00EDa de Maeztu\u201D award to the Institut de Ci\u00E8ncies de l\u2019Espai (CEX2020-001058-M), and from the Generalitat de Catalunya/CERCA programme. S.C.C.B. acknowledges support from FCT through FCT contracts nr. IF/01312/2014/CP1215/CT0004. C.B. acknowledges support from the Swiss Space Office through the ESA PRODEX program. A.C.-G. is funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science through MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 grant PID2019-107061GB-C61. A.C.C. acknowledges support from STFC consolidated grant numbers ST/R000824/1 and ST/V000861/1, and UKSA grant number ST/R003203/1. A.C., A.D., B.E., K.G., and J.K. acknowledge their role as ESA-appointed CHEOPS Science Team Members. P.E.C. is funded by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF) Erwin Schroedinger Fellowship, program J4595-N. This project was supported by the CNES. This work was supported by FCT \u2013 Funda\u00E7\u00E3o para a Ci\u00EAncia e a Tecnologia through national funds and by FEDER through COMPETE2020 through the research grants UIDB/04434/2020, UIDP/04434/2020, 2022.06962.PTDC. O.D.S.D. is supported in the form of work contract (DL 57/2016/CP1364/CT0004) funded by national funds through FCT. B.-O.D. acknowledges support from the Swiss State Secretariat for Education, Research and Innovation (SERI) under contract number MB22.00046. This project has received funding from the Swiss National Science Foundation for project 200021_200726. It has also been carried out within the framework of the National Centre of Competence in Research PlanetS supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation under grant 51NF40_205606. The authors acknowledge the financial support of the SNSF. M.F. and C.M.P. gratefully acknowledge the support of the Swedish National Space Agency (DNR 65/19, 174/18). DG gratefully acknowledges financial support from the CRT foundation under Grant No. 2018.2323 \u201CGaseousor rocky? Unveiling the nature of small worlds\u201D. M.G. is an F.R.S.-FNRS Senior Research Associate. CHe acknowledges support from the European Union H2020-MSCA-ITN-2019 under Grant Agreement no. 860470 (CHAMELEON). J.K. acknowledges the Swedish Research Council (VR: Etableringsbidrag 2017-04945). K.W.F.L. was supported by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft grants RA714/14-1 within the DFG Schwerpunkt SPP 1992, Exploring the Diversity of Extrasolar Planets. This work was granted access to the HPC resources of MesoPSL financed by the Region Ile de France and the project Equip@Meso (reference ANR-10-EQPX-29-01) of the programme Investissements d\u2019Avenir supervised by the Agence Nationale pour la Recherche. PM acknowledges support from STFC research grant number ST/R000638/1. This work was also partially supported by a grant from the Simons Foundation (PI Queloz, grant number 327127). NCSa acknowledges funding by the European Union (ERC, FIERCE, 101052347). Views and opinions expressed are however those of the author(s) only and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Union or the European Research Council. Neither the European Union nor the granting authority can be held responsible for them. A. S. acknowledges support from the Swiss Space Office through the ESA PRODEX program. GyMSz acknowledges the support of the Hungarian National Research, Development and Innovation Office (NKFIH) grant K-125015, a a PRODEX Experiment Agreement No. 4000137122, the Lend\u00FClet LP2018-7/2021 grant of the Hungarian Academy of Science and the support of the city of Szombathely. V.V.G. is an F.R.S.-FNRS Research Associate. JV acknowledges support from the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF) under grant PZ00P2_208945. NAW acknowledges UKSA grant ST/R004838/1. AL acknowledge support of the Swiss National Science Foundation under grant number TMSGI2_211697.We thank the anonymous referee for valuable comments that helped improve the manuscript. We further thank Nicolas Kaufmann, Andrin Kessler, Jeanne Davoult, Jesse Weder and Remo Burn for productive discussions about the Bern model. CHEOPS is an ESA mission in partnership with Switzerland with important contributions to the payload and the ground segment from Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. The CHEOPS Consortium would like to gratefully acknowledge the support received by all the agencies, offices, universities, and industries involved. Their flexibility and willingness to explore new approaches were essential to the success of this mission. CHEOPS data analysed in this article will be made available in the CHEOPS mission archive (https://cheops.unige.ch/archive-browser/). This work has been carried out within the framework of the NCCR PlanetS supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation under grants 51NF40-182901 and 51NF40-205606. Y.Al. acknowledges support from the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF) under grant 200020-192038. M.N.G. is the ESA CHEOPS Project Scientist and Mission Representative, and as such also responsible for the Guest Observers (GO) Programme. MNG does not relay proprietary information between the GO and Guaranteed Time Observation (GTO) Programmes, and does not decide on the definition and target selection of the GTO Programme. M.L. acknowledges support of the Swiss National Science Foundation under grant number PCEFP2-194576. A.Br. was supported by the SNSA. T.Wi. acknowledges support from the UKSA and the University of Warwick. S.G.S. acknowledge support from FCT through FCT contract nr. CEECIND/00826/2018 and POPH/FSE (EC). The Portuguese team thanks the Portuguese Space Agency for the provision of financial support in the framework of the PRODEX Programme of the European Space Agency (ESA) under contract number 4000142255. J.H. acknowledges the support from the Swiss National Science Foundation under grant 200021-204847 'PlanetsInTime'. The Belgian participation to CHEOPS has been supported by the Belgian Federal Science Policy Office (BELSPO) in the framework of the PRODEX Program, and by the University of Li\u00E8ge through an ARC grant for Concerted Research Actions financed by the Wallonia-Brussels Federation. L.D. thanks the Belgian Federal Science Policy Office (BELSPO) for the provision of financial support in the framework of the PRODEX Programme of the European Space Agency (ESA) under contract number 4000142531. L.Bo., G.Br., V.Na., I.Pa., G.Pi., R.Ra., G.Sc., V.Si., and T.Zi. acknowledge support from CHEOPS ASIINAF agreement no. 2019-29-HH.0. T.Zi. acknowledges NVIDIA Academic Hardware Grant Program for the use of the Titan V GPU card and the Italian MUR Departments of Excellence grant 2023-2027 \"Quantum Frontiers\". We acknowledge financial support from the Agencia Estatal de Investigaci\u00F3n of the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovaci\u00F3n MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and the ERDF \"A way of making Europe\" through projects PID2019-107061GB-C61, PID2019-107061GB-C66, PID2021-125627OB-C31, and PID2021-125627OBC32, from the Centre of Excellence \"Severo Ochoa\" award to the Instituto de Astrof\u00EDsica de Canarias (CEX2019-000920-S), from the Centre of Excellence \"Mar\u00EDa de Maeztu\" award to the Institut de Ci\u00E8ncies de l'Espai (CEX2020- 001058-M), and from the Generalitat de Catalunya/CERCA programme. We acknowledge financial support from the Agencia Estatal de Investigaci\u00F3n of the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovaci\u00F3n MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and the ERDF \"A way of making Europe\" through projects PID2019-107061GB-C61, PID2019-107061GB-C66, PID2021-125627OB-C31, and PID2021-125627OBC32, from the Centre of Excellence \"Severo Ochoa\" award to the Instituto de Astrof\u00EDsica de Canarias (CEX2019-000920-S), from the Centre of Excellence \"Mar\u00EDa de Maeztu\" award to the Institut de Ci\u00E8ncies de l'Espai (CEX2020-001058-M), and from the Generalitat de Catalunya/CERCA programme. S.C.C.B. acknowledges support from FCT through FCT contracts nr. IF/01312/2014/CP1215/CT0004. C.B. acknowledges support from the Swiss Space Office through the ESA PRODEX program. A.C.-G. is funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science through MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 grant PID2019-107061GB-C61. A.C.C. acknowledges support from STFC consolidated grant numbers ST/R000824/1 and ST/V000861/1, and UKSA grant number ST/R003203/1. A.C., A.D., B.E., K.G., and J.K. acknowledge their role as ESA-appointed CHEOPS Science Team Members. P.E.C. is funded by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF) Erwin Schroedinger Fellowship, program J4595-N. This project was supported by the CNES. This work was supported by FCT - Funda\u00E7\u00E3o para a Ci\u00EAncia e a Tecnologia through national funds and by FEDER through COMPETE2020 through the research grants UIDB/04434/2020, UIDP/04434/2020, 2022.06962.PTDC. O.D.S.D. is supported in the form of work contract (DL 57/2016/CP1364/CT0004) funded by national funds through FCT. B.-O.D. acknowledges support from the Swiss State Secretariat for Education, Research and Innovation (SERI) under contract number MB22.00046. This project has received funding from the Swiss National Science Foundation for project 200021-200726. It has also been carried out within the framework of the National Centre of Competence in Research PlanetS supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation under grant 51NF40-205606. The authors acknowledge the financial support of the SNSF. M.F. and C.M.P. gratefully acknowledge the support of the Swedish National Space Agency (DNR 65/19, 174/18). DG gratefully acknowledges financial support from the CRT foundation under Grant No. 2018.2323 \"Gaseousor rocky? Unveiling the nature of small worlds\". M.G. is an F.R.S.-FNRS Senior Research Associate. CHe acknowledges support from the European Union H2020-MSCA-ITN-2019 under Grant Agreement no. 860470 (CHAMELEON). J.K. acknowledges the Swedish Research Council (VR: Etableringsbidrag 2017-04945). K.W.F.L. was supported by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft grants RA714/14-1 within the DFG Schwerpunkt SPP 1992, Exploring the Diversity of Extrasolar Planets. This work was granted access to the HPC resources of MesoPSL financed by the Region Ile de France and the project Equip@Meso (reference ANR-10-EQPX- 29-01) of the programme Investissements d'Avenir supervised by the Agence Nationale pour la Recherche. PM acknowledges support from STFC research grant number ST/R000638/1. This work was also partially supported by a grant from the Simons Foundation (PI Queloz, grant number 327127). NCSa acknowledges funding by the European Union (ERC, FIERCE, 101052347). Views and opinions expressed are however those of the author(s) only and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Union or the European Research Council. Neither the European Union nor the granting authority can be held responsible for them. A. S. acknowledges support from the Swiss Space Office through the ESA PRODEX program. GyMSz acknowledges the support of the Hungarian National Research, Development and Innovation Office (NKFIH) grant K-125015, a a PRODEX Experiment Agreement No. 4000137122, the Lend\u00FClet LP2018-7/2021 grant of the Hungarian Academy of Science and the support of the city of Szombathely. V.V.G. is an F.R.S.-FNRS Research Associate. JV acknowledges support from the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF) under grant PZ00P2-208945. NAW acknowledges UKSA grant ST/R004838/1. AL acknowledge support of the Swiss National Science Foundation under grant number TMSGI2-211697. Software. The following software packages have been used for this publication: Python-numpy (Harris et al. 2020), Python-pandas (McKinney et al. 2010), Python-matplotlib (Hunter 2007), Python-seaborn (Waskom 2021), Python-tensorflow (Abadi et al. 2015), Python-scipy (Virtanen et al. 2020).
Commentary :
30 pages, 17 figures, accepted for publication in A&A
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