Recent sea level changes in the Red Sea: Thermosteric and halosteric contributions, and impacts of natural climate variability

Mohamed, Bayoumy Abdelaziz; Skliris, Nikolaos

doi:10.1016/j.pocean.2025.103416

Article (Scientific journals)

Recent sea level changes in the Red Sea: Thermosteric and halosteric contributions, and impacts of natural climate variability

Mohamed, Bayoumy Abdelaziz; Skliris, Nikolaos

2025 • In Progress in Oceanography, 231 (February 2025), p. 103416

Peer Reviewed verified by ORBi

Permalink
https://hdl.handle.net/2268/326345

DOI
10.1016/j.pocean.2025.103416

Files (1)Send to Details Statistics Bibliography Similar publications

Files

Full Text

1-s2.0-S0079661125000047-main.pdf

Author postprint (20.33 MB)

Download

All documents in ORBi are protected by a user license.

Send to

RIS BibTex APA Chicago Permalink X Linkedin

Details

Keywords :

Red Sea, Sea Level variability, Salinity, Thermosteric, Halosteric, Satellite Altimetry, ENSO, ARMOR

Abstract :

[en] This study investigates sea level changes in the Red Sea over the last 29 years (1993–2021) by analyzing long-term trends and interannual variations in the total sea level anomaly (SLA). The study also explores the role of thermosteric and halosteric changes and interannual variability of total SLA using an empirical orthogonal function (EOF) analysis and their relationship with large-scale climate modes. The results show that the trends of total and steric SLA were higher in the northern Red Sea (NRS) than in the southern Red Sea (SRS), influenced by low-salinity water inflow from the Aden Gulf. The average SLA trend in the Red Sea between 1993 and 2021 was about 4.17 ± 0.14 mm/year. However, an abrupt change was observed in SLA and its components, with accelerating trends in the post-2008 period compared to the pre-2008 period. This increase was mainly due to the thermosteric effect, which was positively enhanced throughout the Red Sea. The halosteric component in the NRS contributed negatively to the overall steric effect. The interannual SLA variability accounts for about 45 % of the total variability and can be partially explained by the influence of the El Nino Southern Oscillation.

Research Center/Unit :

FOCUS - Freshwater and OCeanic science Unit of reSearch - ULiège

Disciplines :

Earth sciences & physical geography

Author, co-author :

Mohamed, Bayoumy Abdelaziz ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Freshwater and OCeanic science Unit of reSearch (FOCUS)

Skliris, Nikolaos

Language :

English

Title :

Recent sea level changes in the Red Sea: Thermosteric and halosteric contributions, and impacts of natural climate variability

Publication date :

January 2025

Journal title :

Progress in Oceanography

ISSN :

0079-6611

Publisher :

Elsevier

Volume :

231

Issue :

February 2025

Pages :

103416

Peer reviewed :

Peer Reviewed verified by ORBi

Development Goals :

13. Climate action

Additional URL :

https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/271817/1-s2.0-S0079661124X00117/1-s2.0-S0079661125000047/main.pdf?X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjEMX%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJIMEYCIQDd1j%2F1jogfei1atptrEUQQsAUmH0eUhYWCDPef93jD0wIhAKX4Mz30ispJf9NuD9ic%2FhqOt2fOkC1sEQaIv1RXQF9ZKrwFCL7%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2FwEQBRoMMDU5MDAzNTQ2ODY1IgwZBJ6wHf8wnwgtpU0qkAWKfFb84b5kd%2B3lJhpE%2FimLglkmuueDUZwwJHSD5lO5IpCCRo5oGjVCovAlLfFBpew8emhQU6hsD4Kp9xeOfYPmdqEeLss8nCUjJEmEAB0Kma8T1RpuSJ0caTs%2Bg3QM7aSscKH%2FlA9vYLeBlG7FMr1%2BdmdRM6JyYDsYfNtZozFuZ6UXSrp0vM05htnyJxHzKaCg3WpW2jhtHj72b5rYIIRDQd033K8nweRvdqwGTcLK%2BecX050gyf5KNgSFLf1nPaYVPbavG3j02klMAwlBdxAYHbhmbyzihOv2Ks1o8hAaJRBRngtRQDAh%2BC%2FmsbnU16XkFyRO%2FLYPVc4FTQ2%2FhB%2B09M64u0G%2B3smQ4QUfvQHRK0AeRIA3Tjs1ZK1AfJBZWVdsYdLmVDK9M59WIrHjBV%2B8bXyk8tBwNWGz1evcWHtI30KgADoMSgFvYX%2Fjcnjvi%2B3ik60eWJYRZySb1tw4HxPwhznVyk3dIXVYTqhxLLDgqksqzpCnHh2OrD6LgHZY80HdmuFfyDYYPvfYQQGLY9SNZyJwwPa%2FwWVaYKj5HE6oDjiwyN6dOfuIUT%2FGTRG%2BZfTuKd7fAcIRGAfuY0IVEJx35fX7UhcwVEC%2BERGPt%2FXasnwAHEKPRFsVd%2BbBagCWvcbjmtsH6KOCNcHqMfkme1s8gsGUEcILV6DqdjiauTjO5DZDUy3cf9ztkVy0vQQtGL1PFU802DbkXsben9pyDajwA2lVsX9WMoRmhPYvv5JO7rC2AvCtUF8%2Fs2uVj01sOVNJMo6dYpwANE8Pb26AUIfySSrFngOsoD35OHbzfsWd4Gccu9thdb0%2B7Ok6BpBPrO5gInLPdXQUZAGe2zaVdHCIO0%2FalLOhdM5GFVNZybSAkTCbqb68BjqwAcR3Ap%2BVP3k7Z25tEWKH80DEJ%2B8m5rTCQekTmvV2IfZDGdh7YmagsrtBO0xFDKle9APqTrKhp%2Ffvwt040%2BdW3VWZ9vrMFZ%2ByQCmSZ4%2FyYPAtdvH4kMtBFWYP2fP1wsZpXuXWbTuKUmzogi1GP159HnwI15KuqaCY4m67Zh%2BOV6%2BUv7tVFQlYxfnplLzaiuVu3lAtZbJ2qGzjrPkl6JWgtefzj%2BYI1PIbYTczW%2F%2FSBFcy&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20250121T131023Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=300&X-Amz-Credential=ASIAQ3PHCVTYWEFGB35R%2F20250121%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Signature=4d446f2b42fce40a8f73718509c66358b4723d8f4badff6c39a3e7f0a7f02311&hash=ddfea11becb838d89cfcd69035400cdd5b385d69617c6f263ea4a4d5159577a7&host=68042c943591013ac2b2430a89b270f6af2c76d8dfd086a07176afe7c76c2c61&pii=S0079661125000047&tid=spdf-bb0c503a-bd91-4fae-aa6d-3879f5fa809c&sid=095a8efd9ac6454cae1bb1f39638ab42ba9agxrqb&type=client&tsoh=d3d3LnNjaWVuY2VkaXJlY3QuY29t&ua=18035f5257575c04525f00&rr=90578b49ae11b775&cc=be

Available on ORBi :

since 08 January 2025

Statistics

Number of views

186 (106 by ULiège)

Number of downloads

344 (1 by ULiège)

More statistics

Scopus citations^®

Scopus citations^®
without self-citations

OpenCitations

OpenAlex citations

Bibliography

Abdulla, C.P., Al-Subhi, A.M., 2020. Sea Level Variability in the Red Sea: A Persistent East–West Pattern. Remote Sensing 2020, Vol. 12, Page 2090 12, 2090. Doi: 10.3390/RS12132090.
Abdulla, C.P., Al-Subhi, A.M., 2021. Is the Red Sea Sea-Level Rising at a Faster Rate than the Global Average? An Analysis Based on Satellite Altimetry Data. Remote Sensing 2021, Vol. 13, Page 3489 13, 3489. Doi: 10.3390/RS13173489.
Akhter, S., Qiao, F., Wu, K., Yin, X., Chowdhury, K.M.A., Chowdhury, N.U.M.K., Seasonal and long-term sea-level variations and their forcing factors in the northern Bay of Bengal: a statistical analysis of temperature, salinity, wind stress curl, and regional climate index data. Dyn. Atmos. Oceans, 95, 2021, 101239, 10.1016/J.DYNATMOCE.2021.101239.
Alawad, K.A.I., Al-Subhi, A.M., Alsaafani, M.A., Alraddadi, T.M., Signatures of tropical climate modes on the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden sea level. Indian J. Geo-Mar. Sci., 46, 2017.
Alawad, K.A., Al-Subhi, A.M., Alsaafani, M.A., Alraddadi, T.M., Ionita, M., Lohmann, G., 2019. Large-Scale Mode Impacts on the Sea Level over the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. Remote Sensing 2019, Vol. 11, Page 2224 11, 2224. Doi: 10.3390/RS11192224.
Al-Subhi, A.M., Abdulla, C.P., Sea-level variability in the arabian gulf in comparison with global oceans. Remote Sens. (Basel), 13, 2021, 10.3390/rs13224524.
Antony, C., Langodan, S., Dasari, H.P., Abualnaja, Y., Hoteit, I., Sea-level extremes of meteorological origin in the Red Sea. Weather Clim. Extrem., 35, 2022, 100409, 10.1016/J.WACE.2022.100409.
Boening, C., Willis, J.K., Landerer, F.W., Nerem, R.S., Fasullo, J., The 2011 la Nia: so strong, the oceans fell. Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, 2012, 10.1029/2012GL053055.
Cazenave, A., Moreira, L., 2022. Contemporary sea-level changes from global to local scales: a review. Proceedings of the Royal Society A 478. Doi: 10.1098/RSPA.2022.0049.
Churchill, J.H., Abualnaja, Y., Limeburner, R., Nellayaputhenpeedika, M., The dynamics of weather-band sea level variations in the Red Sea. Reg. Stud. Mar. Sci. 24 (2018), 336–342, 10.1016/j.rsma.2018.09.006.
Dangendorf, S., Frederikse, T., Chafik, L., Klinck, J.M., Ezer, T., Hamlington, B.D., Data-driven reconstruction reveals large-scale ocean circulation control on coastal sea level. Nat. Clim. Chang., 11, 2021, 10.1038/s41558-021-01046-1.
Droghei, R., Buongiorno Nardelli, B., Santoleri, R., Combining in situ and satellite observations to retrieve salinity and density at the ocean surface. J. Atmos. Ocean Technol. 33 (2016), 1211–1223, 10.1175/JTECH-D-15-0194.1.
Droghei, R., Nardelli, B.B., Santoleri, R., A new global sea surface salinity and density dataset from multivariate observations (1993-2016). Front. Mar. Sci., 5, 2018, 84, 10.3389/FMARS.2018.00084/BIBTEX.
Emery, W.J., Thomson, R.E., Data analysis methods in physical oceanography. Data Anal. Methods Phys. Oceanogr., 1997, 10.2307/1353059.
Feng, W., Lemoine, J.M., Zhong, M., Hsu, H.T., Mass-induced sea level variations in the Red Sea from GRACE, steric-corrected altimetry, in situ bottom pressure records, and hydrographic observations. J. Geodyn. 78 (2014), 1–7, 10.1016/J.JOG.2014.04.008.
Gill, A.E., Niller, P.P., The theory of the seasonal variability in the ocean. Deep-Sea Res. Oceanogr. Abstr. 20 (1973), 141–177, 10.1016/0011-7471(73)90049-1.
Good, S., Fiedler, E., Mao, C., Martin, M.J., Maycock, A., Reid, R., Roberts-Jones, J., Searle, T., Waters, J., While, J., Worsfold, M., The current configuration of the OSTIA system for operational production of foundation sea surface temperature and ice concentration analyses. Remote Sens. (Basel), 12, 2020, 10.3390/rs12040720.
Greene, C.A., Thirumalai, K., Kearney, K.A., Delgado, J.M., Schwanghart, W., Wolfenbarger, N.S., Thyng, K.M., Gwyther, D.E., Gardner, A.S., Blankenship, D.D., The climate data toolbox for MATLAB. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 20 (2019), 3774–3781, 10.1029/2019GC008392.
Guinehut, S., Dhomps, A.L., Larnicol, G., Le Traon, P.Y., High resolution 3-D temperature and salinity fields derived from in situ and satellite observations. Ocean Sci. 8 (2012), 845–857, 10.5194/OS-8-845-2012.
Hamed, K.H., Ramachandra Rao, A., A modified Mann-Kendall trend test for autocorrelated data. J. Hydrol. (Amst.) 204 (1998), 182–196, 10.1016/S0022-1694(97)00125-X.
Ishii, M., Kimoto, M., Reevaluation of historical ocean heat content variations with time-varying XBT and MBT depth bias corrections. J. Oceanogr. 65 (2009), 287–299, 10.1007/s10872-009-0027-7.
Jayne, S.R., Wahr, J.M., Bryan, F.O., Observing ocean heat content using satellite gravity and altimetry. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 108 (2003), 1–12, 10.1029/2002jc001619.
Jordà, G., Gomis, D., On the interpretation of the steric and mass components of sea level variability: The case of the Mediterranean basin. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 118 (2013), 953–963, 10.1002/jgrc.20060.
Kane, R.P., Trivedi, N.B., Periodicities in sunspot numbers. J. Geomag. Geoelec. 37 (1985), 1071–1085, 10.5636/JGG.37.1071.
Kaplan, A., Cane, M.A., Kushnir, Y., Clement, A.C., Blumenthal, M.B., Rajagopalan, B., Analyses of global sea surface temperature 1856–1991. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 103 (1998), 18567–18589, 10.1029/97JC01736.
Karnauskas, K.B., Jones, B.H., The interannual variability of sea surface temperature in the Red Sea from 35 years of satellite and in situ observations. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 123 (2018), 5824–5841, 10.1029/2017JC013320.
Kerr, R.A., A North Atlantic climate pacemaker for the centuries. Science 1979:288 (2000), 1984–1986, 10.1126/SCIENCE.288.5473.1984.
Kersalé, M., Volkov, D.L., Pujiana, K., Zhang, H., Interannual variability of sea level in the southern Indian Ocean: Local vs. remote forcing mechanisms. Ocean Sci. 18 (2022), 193–212, 10.5194/OS-18-193-2022.
Krokos, G., Papadopoulos, V.P., Sofianos, S.S., Ombao, H., Dybczak, P., Hoteit, I., Natural climate oscillations may counteract Red Sea warming over the coming decades. Geophys. Res. Lett. 46 (2019), 3454–3461, 10.1029/2018GL081397.
Kusche, J., Uebbing, B., Rietbroek, R., Shum, C.K., Khan, Z.H., Sea level budget in the Bay of Bengal (2002–2014) from GRACE and altimetry. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 121 (2016), 1194–1217, 10.1002/2015JC011471.
Landerer, F.W., Jungclaus, J.H., Marotzke, J., Ocean bottom pressure changes lead to a decreasing length-of-day in a warming climate. Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, 2007, 10.1029/2006GL029106.
Landerer, F.W., Volkov, D.L., The anatomy of recent large sea level fluctuations in the Mediterranean Sea. Geophys. Res. Lett. 40 (2013), 553–557, 10.1002/grl.50140.
Levitus, S., Antonov, J.I., Boyer, T.P., Baranova, O.K., Garcia, H.E., Locarnini, R.A., Mishonov, A.V., Reagan, J.R., Seidov, D., Yarosh, E.S., Zweng, M.M., World ocean heat content and thermosteric sea level change (0-2000m), 1955-2010. Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, 2012, 10.1029/2012GL051106.
Li, Y., Han, W., Decadal sea level variations in the Indian Ocean investigated with HYCOM: roles of climate modes, ocean internal variability, and stochastic wind forcing. J. Clim. 28 (2015), 9143–9165, 10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0252.1.
Manasrah, R., Hasanean, H.M., Al-Rousan, S., Spatial and seasonal variations of sea level in the Red Sea, 1958-2001. Ocean Sci. J. 44 (2009), 145–159, 10.1007/S12601-009-0013-4/METRICS.
McDougall, Trevor J.; Barker, P.M., 2011. Getting started with TEOS-10 and the Gibbs Seawater (GSW) Oceanographic Toolbox. Scor/Iapso Wg127 28.
Mohamed, B., Abdallah, A.M., Alam El-Din, K., Nagy, H., Shaltout, M., Inter-annual variability and trends of sea level and sea surface temperature in the mediterranean sea over the last 25 years. Pure Appl. Geophys. 176 (2019), 3787–3810, 10.1007/s00024-019-02156-w.
Mohamed, B., Nagy, H., Ibrahim, O., 2021. Spatiotemporal Variability and Trends of Marine Heat Waves in the Red Sea over 38 Years. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 2021, Vol. 9, Page 842 9, 842. Doi: 10.3390/JMSE9080842.
Mohamed, B., Skliris, N., Steric and atmospheric contributions to interannual sea level variability in the eastern mediterranean sea over 1993–2019. Oceanologia 64 (2022), 50–62, 10.1016/J.OCEANO.2021.09.001.
Mohamed, B., Nilsen, F., Skogseth, R., Interannual and decadal variability of sea surface temperature and sea ice concentration in the Barents sea. Remote Sens. (Basel), 14, 2022, 4413, 10.3390/RS14174413.
Mohamed, B., Barth, A., Alvera-Azcárate, A., Extreme marine heatwaves and cold-spells events in the Southern North Sea: classifications, patterns, and trends. Front. Mar. Sci., 10, 2023, 10.3389/fmars.2023.1258117.
Mulet, S., Rio, M.H., Mignot, A., Guinehut, S., Morrow, R., A new estimate of the global 3D geostrophic ocean circulation based on satellite data and in-situ measurements. Deep Sea Res. Part II 77–80 (2012), 70–81, 10.1016/J.DSR2.2012.04.012.
Nagy, H., Mohamed, B., Ibrahim, O., 2021. Variability of Heat and Water Fluxes in the Red Sea Using ERA5 Data (1981–2020). Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 2021, Vol. 9, Page 1276 9, 1276. Doi: 10.3390/JMSE9111276.
Palanisamy, H., Cazenave, A., Meyssignac, B., Soudarin, L., Wöppelmann, G., Becker, M., Regional sea level variability, total relative sea level rise and its impacts on islands and coastal zones of Indian Ocean over the last sixty years. Glob. Planet. Change 116 (2014), 54–67, 10.1016/J.GLOPLACHA.2014.02.001.
Parekh, A., Gnanaseelan, C., Deepa, J.S., Karmakar, A., Chowdary, J.S., Sea level variability and trends in the North Indian Ocean. Springer Geol., 181–192, 2017, 10.1007/978-981-10-2531-0_11/FIGURES/5.
Parker, A., Ollier, C.D., Is the sea level stable at Aden, Yemen?. Earth Syst. Environ. 1 (2017), 1–13, 10.1007/S41748-017-0020-Z/FIGURES/8.
Pawlowicz, R., McDougall, T., Feistel, R., Tailleux, R., An historical perspective on the development of the Thermodynamic Equation of Seawater-2010. Ocean Sci., 2012, 10.5194/os-8-161-2012.
Peltier, W.R., Argus, D.F., Drummond, R., Space geodesy constrains ice age terminal deglaciation: the global ICE-6G-C (VM5a) model. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 120 (2015), 450–487, 10.1002/2014JB011176.
Peter, B.N., Sreejith, M., Siswanto, E., Variability of Arabian Sea surface circulation and chlorophyll distribution: a remote sensing estimation. Terr. Atmos. Ocean. Sci., 33, 2022, 10.1007/s44195-022-00024-0.
Pettitt, A.N., A non-parametric approach to the change-point problem. Appl. Stat., 28, 1979, 126, 10.2307/2346729.
Raitsos, D.E., Pradhan, Y., Brewin, R.J.W., Stenchikov, G., Hoteit, I., Remote sensing the phytoplankton seasonal succession of the Red Sea. PLoS One, 8, 2013, e64909, 10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0064909.
Rasul, N.M.A., Stewart, I.C.F., Nawab, Z.A., 2015. Introduction to the Red Sea: Its Origin, Structure, and Environment 1–28. Doi: 10.1007/978-3-662-45201-1_1.
Saji, N.H., Goswami, B.N., Vinayachandran, P.N., Yamagata, T., A dipole mode in the tropical Indian Ocean. Nature 401 (1999), 360–363, 10.1038/43854.
Saji, N.H., Xie, S.P., Yamagata, T., Tropical Indian Ocean variability in the IPCC twentieth-century climate simulations. J. Clim. 19 (2006), 4397–4417, 10.1175/JCLI3847.1.
Salim, M., Nayak, R.K., Swain, D., Dadhwal, V.K., Sea surface height variability in the tropical Indian Ocean: steric contribution. J. Indian Soc. Remote Sens. 40 (2012), 679–688, 10.1007/S12524-011-0188-X/FIGURES/8.
Schott, F.A., Xie, S.P., McCreary, J.P., Indian Ocean circulation and climate variability. Rev. Geophys., 47, 2009, 1002, 10.1029/2007RG000245.
Sofianos, S.S., Johns, W.E., Wind induced sea level variability in the Red Sea. Geophys. Res. Lett. 28 (2001), 3175–3178, 10.1029/2000GL012442/ABSTRACT.
Sofianos, S.S., Johns, W.E., An Oceanic General Circulation Model (OGCM) investigation of the Red Sea circulation: 2. three-dimensional circulation in the Red Sea. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans, 108, 2003, 3066, 10.1029/2001JC001185.
Sofianos, S.S., Johns, W.E., Observations of the summer Red Sea circulation. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans, 112, 2007, 10.1029/2006JC003886.
Srinivasu, U., Ravichandran, M., Han, W., Sivareddy, S., Rahman, H., Li, Y., Nayak, S., Causes for the reversal of North Indian Ocean decadal sea level trend in recent two decades. Clim. Dyn. 49 (2017), 3887–3904, 10.1007/S00382-017-3551-Y/FIGURES/10.
Stammer, D., Cazenave, A., Ponte, R.M., Tamisiea, M.E., Causes for contemporary regional sea level changes. Ann. Rev. Mar. Sci., 5, 2013, 10.1146/annurev-marine-121211-172406.
Storto, A., Masina, S., Balmaseda, M., Guinehut, S., Xue, Y., Szekely, T., Fukumori, I., Forget, G., Chang, Y.S., Good, S.A., Köhl, A., Vernieres, G., Ferry, N., Peterson, K.A., Behringer, D., Ishii, M., Masuda, S., Fujii, Y., Toyoda, T., Yin, Y., Valdivieso, M., Barnier, B., Boyer, T., Lee, T., Gourrion, J., Wang, O., Heimback, P., Rosati, A., Kovach, R., Hernandez, F., Martin, M.J., Kamachi, M., Kuragano, T., Mogensen, K., Alves, O., Haines, K., Wang, X., Steric sea level variability (1993–2010) in an ensemble of ocean reanalyses and objective analyses. Clim. Dyn. 49 (2017), 709–729, 10.1007/S00382-015-2554-9.
Sultan, S.A.R., Ahmad, F., El-Hassan, A., Seasonal variations of the sea level in the central part of the Red Sea. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 40 (1995), 1–8, 10.1016/0272-7714(95)90008-X.
Sultan, S.A.R., Ahmad, F., Nassar, D., Relative contribution of external sources of mean sea-level variations at Port Sudan, Red Sea. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 42 (1996), 19–30, 10.1006/ECSS.1996.0002.
Taqi, A.M., Al-Subhi, A.M., Alsaafani, M.A., Extension of satellite altimetry Jason-2 sea level anomalies towards the Red Sea coast using polynomial harmonic techniques. Mar. Geod. 40 (2017), 315–328, 10.1080/01490419.2017.1333549.
Taqi, A.M., Al-Subhi, A.M., Alsaafani, M.A., Abdulla, C.P., Estimation of geostrophic current in the Red Sea based on sea level anomalies derived from extended satellite altimetry data. Ocean Sci. 15 (2019), 477–488, 10.5194/OS-15-477-2019.
Taqi, A.M., Al-Subhi, A.M., Alsaafani, M.A., Abdulla, C.P., 2020. Improving Sea Level Anomaly Precision from Satellite Altimetry Using Parameter Correction in the Red Sea. Remote Sensing 2020, Vol. 12, Page 764 12, 764. Doi: 10.3390/RS12050764.
Thompson, P.R., Piecuch, C.G., Merrifield, M.A., McCreary, J.P., Firing, E., Forcing of recent decadal variability in the Equatorial and North Indian Ocean. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 121 (2016), 6762–6778, 10.1002/2016JC012132.
Tragou, E., Garrett, C., Outerbridge, R., Gilman, C., The heat and freshwater budgets of the Red Sea. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 29 (1999), 2504–2522, 10.1175/1520-0485(1999)029<2504:THAFBO>2.0.CO;2.
Volkov, D.L., Lee, S.K., Gordon, A.L., Rudko, M., Unprecedented reduction and quick recovery of the South Indian Ocean heat content and sea level in 2014-2018. Sci. Adv., 6, 2020, 10.1126/SCIADV.ABC1151.
Wang, G., Cheng, L., Boyer, T., Li, C., Halosteric sea level changes during the Argo era. Water (Switzerland) 9 (2017), 1–13, 10.3390/w9070484.
Welch, P.D., The use of fast fourier transform for the estimation of power spectra: a method based on time averaging over short, modified periodograms. IEEE Trans. Audio Electroacoust. 15 (1967), 70–73, 10.1109/TAU.1967.1161901.
Wilks, D.S., Statistical methods in the atmospheric sciences. 2011, Academic Press.
Zhan, P., Krokos, G., Guo, D., Hoteit, I., Three-dimensional signature of the Red Sea Eddies and Eddy-induced transport. Geophys. Res. Lett. 46 (2019), 2167–2177, 10.1029/2018GL081387.