SO2; Fuel cell; Emission factor; NOx; Pollutant emissions; CO
Abstract :
[en] Energy transition currently brings focus on fuel cell micro-combined heat and power (mCHP) systems for residential uses. The two main technologies already commercialized are the Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) and Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs). The pollutant emissions of one system of each technology have been tested with a portable probe both in laboratory and field-test configurations. In this paper, the nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO2), and carbon monoxide (CO) emission levels are compared to other combustion technologies such as a recent Euro 6 diesel automotive vehicle, a classical gas condensing boiler, and a gas absorption heat pump. At last, a method of converting the concentration of pollutants (in ppm) measured by the sensors into pollutant intensity per unit of energy (in mg/kWh) is documented and reported. This allows for comparing the pollutant emissions levels with relevant literature, especially other studies conducted with other measuring sensors.
Both tested residential fuel cell technologies fed by natural gas can be considered clean regarding SO2 and NOx emissions. The CO emissions can be considered quite low for the tested SOFC and even nil for the tested PEMFC. The biggest issue of natural gas fuel cell technologies still lies in the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions associated with the fossil fuel they consume. The gas absorption heat pump however shows worse NOx and CO levels than the classical gas condensing boiler.
At last, this study illustrates that the high level of hybridization between a fuel cell and a gas boiler may be responsible for unexpected ON/OFF cycling behaviours and therefore prevent both sub-systems from operating as optimally and reliably as they would have as standalone units.
Disciplines :
Energy Earth sciences & physical geography
Author, co-author :
Paulus, Nicolas ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Aérospatiale et Mécanique (A&M)
Lemort, Vincent ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département d'aérospatiale et mécanique > Thermodynamique appliquée
Language :
English
Title :
Experimental assessment of pollutant emissions from residential fuel cells and comparative benchmark analysis
Publication date :
07 May 2024
Journal title :
Journal of Environmental Management
ISSN :
0301-4797
eISSN :
1095-8630
Publisher :
Elsevier BV
Volume :
359
Pages :
121017
Peer reviewed :
Peer Reviewed verified by ORBi
Development Goals :
7. Affordable and clean energy 11. Sustainable cities and communities 12. Responsible consumption and production 13. Climate action
scite shows how a scientific paper has been cited by providing the context of the citation, a classification describing whether it supports, mentions, or contrasts the cited claim, and a label indicating in which section the citation was made.
Aguiar, P., Chadwick, D., Kershenbaum, L., Effect of methane slippage on an indirect internal reforming solid oxide fuel cell. Chem. Eng. Sci. 59 (2004), 87–97, 10.1016/j.ces.2003.09.022.
Alshorman, A.A., Characteristic study of Bio-membrane PEM fuel cell for performance upgrading. Procedia Comput. Sci. 83 (2016), 839–846, 10.1016/j.procs.2016.04.174.
Amatuni, L., Ottelin, J., Steubing, B., Mogollón, J.M., Does car sharing reduce greenhouse gas emissions? Assessing the modal shift and lifetime shift rebound effects from a life cycle perspective. J. Clean. Prod., 266, 2020, 121869, 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121869.
Asiaban, S., Kayedpour, N., Samani, A.E., Bozalakov, D., De Kooning, J.D.M., Crevecoeur, G., Vandevelde, L., Wind and solar intermittency and the associated integration challenges: a comprehensive review including the status in the Belgian power system. Energies, 14, 2021, 10.3390/EN14092630.
Balamurugan, T., Nalini, R., Experimental investigation on performance, combustion and emission characteristics of four stroke diesel engine using diesel blended with alcohol as fuel. Energy 78 (2014), 356–363, 10.1016/j.energy.2014.10.020.
Bălănescu, D.T., Homutescu, V.M., Experimental investigation on performance of a condensing boiler and economic evaluation in real operating conditions. Appl. Therm. Eng. 143 (2018), 48–58, 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2018.07.082.
Bălănescu, D.-T., Homutescu, V.-M., Experimental study on the combustion system optimization in the case of a 36 kW condensing boiler. Procedia Eng. 181 (2017), 706–711, 10.1016/j.proeng.2017.02.453.
Baldi, F., Moret, S., Tammi, K., Maréchal, F., The role of solid oxide fuel cells in future ship energy systems. Energy, 194, 2020, 116811, 10.1016/j.energy.2019.116811.
Baldi, S., Quang, T. Le, Holub, O., Endel, P., Real-time monitoring energy efficiency and performance degradation of condensing boilers. Energy Convers. Manag. 136 (2017), 329–339, 10.1016/j.enconman.2017.01.016.
Bang, E.-S., Kim, M.-H., Park, S.-K., Options for methane fuel processing in PEMFC system with potential maritime applications. Energies, 15, 2022, 8604, 10.3390/en15228604.
Belgian Waste-To-Energy, n.d. Foire aux questions - FAQ [WWW Document]. URL http://www.bw2e.be/fr/foire-aux-questions-faq/(accessed 4.18.23)..
Bennett, G., Elwell, C., Effect of boiler oversizing on efficiency: a dynamic simulation study. Build. Serv. Eng. Res. Tecnol., 41, 2020, 709, 10.1177/0143624420927352.
Bloom Energy. The Bloom Energy Server 5.5. 2023 [WWW Document]. Data Sheet https://www.bloomenergy.com/wp-content/uploads/bloom-energy-server-datasheet-2023.pdf accessed 5.29.23.
Bowman, C.T., Kinetics of pollutant formation and destruction in combustion. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 1 (1975), 33–45, 10.1016/0360-1285(75)90005-2.
Brook, R.D., Rajagopalan, S., Pope, C.A., Brook, J.R., Bhatnagar, A., Diez-Roux, A.V., Holguin, F., Hong, Y., Luepker, R.V., Mittleman, M.A., Peters, A., Siscovick, D., Smith, S.C., Whitsel, L., Kaufman, J.D., Particulate matter air pollution and cardiovascular disease. Circulation 121 (2010), 2331–2378, 10.1161/CIR.0b013e3181dbece1.
Bruijstens, A.J., Beuman, W.P.H., Molen, M.V.D., Rijke, J.D., Cloudt, R.P.M., Kadijk, G., Camp, O.O.D., Bleuanus, S., Biogas composition and engine performance, including database and biogas property model. BiogasMax, 2008 https://publications.tno.nl/publication/26006495/fPcYpZ/bruijstens-2009-biogasmax.pdf.
Buderus. Installation Instructions - Condensing Gas Boiler - Logamax Plus GB142-24/30/45/60. 7215 0200 (11/2011) US/CA. 2011 https://s3.amazonaws.com/s3.supplyhouse.com/product_files/Buderus%20-%20GB142-30%20-%20Install%20Instructions.pdf.
Cao, Y.-L., Yu, M.-X., Jiang, J., Cao, N.-N., Zhao, M., Wang, C., Zhang, D.-Q., Yan, J.-H., Effects of simulated acid rain on soil N2O emission from typical forest in subtropical sou-thern China. J. Appl. Ecol., 32, 2021, 10.13287/j.1001-9332.202104.007.
Chae, Y., Kim, M., Yoo, S.H., Does natural gas fuel price cause system marginal price, vice-versa, or neither? A causality analysis. Energy 47 (2012), 199–204, 10.1016/J.ENERGY.2012.09.047.
Chameides, W.L., Fehsenfeld, F., Rodgers, M.O., Cardelino, C., Martinez, J., Parrish, D., Lonneman, W., Lawson, D.R., Rasmussen, R.A., Zimmerman, P., Greenberg, J., Mlddleton, P., Wang, T., Ozone precursor relationships in the ambient atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res., 97, 1992, 6037, 10.1029/91JD03014.
Chartrand, R., Intergovernmental Advanced Stationary PEM Fuel Cell System Demonstration Final Report., 2011, US Department of Energy, 10.2172/1038683.
Chen, D., Christensen, T.H., Life-cycle assessment (EASEWASTE) of two municipal solid waste incineration technologies in China. Waste Manag. Res. 28 (2010), 508–519, 10.1177/0734242X10361761.
Cheremisinoff, N.P., Introduction to air quality. Handbook of Air Pollution Prevention and Control, 2002, Elsevier, 1–52, 10.1016/B978-075067499-7/50002-X.
Cheremisinoff, P.N., Young, R.A., Air Pollution Control and Design Handbook. Part II. 1977, Marcel Dekker, New York https://books.google.be/books/about/Air_Pollution_Control_and_Design_Handboo.html?id=N5RWAAAACAAJ&redir_esc=y.
CREG. Analyse semestrielle de l’évolution des prix de l’énergie – 2ème semestre 2023. 2024 https://www.creg.be/sites/default/files/assets/Prices/EvolPrFR.pdf.
CREG. Analyse semestrielle de l’évolution des prix de l’énergie – 2ème semestre 2021. 2022 https://www.creg.info/Tarifs/EvolPrices/Francais/2021H2EvolPrFR.pdf.
CREG. (F)1736 - study on the cost-effectiveness of natural gas (CNG or compressed natural gas) used as fuel in cars. Commission de Régulation de l'Electricité et du Gaz, 2018 https://www.creg.be/sites/default/files/assets/Publications/Studies/F1736EN.pdf.
CWaPE. Décision CD-5j18-CWaPE relative à “la définition des rendements annuels d'exploitation des installations modernes de référence, ...”. 2005 https://www.cwape.be/sites/default/files/cwape-documents/50.pdf.
D2SERVICE. WP4: Design Changes Required for an Easier and More Competitive Service of SP's μCHP Appliance - D4.4: Service Manual (Prescriptions and Instructions to Installer). 2019, 10.3030/671473.
Dávila, C., Paulus, N., Lemort, V., Experimental investigation of a Micro-CHP unit driven by natural gas for residential buildings. Proceedings of the 19th International Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Conference (Herrick 2022), 2022 https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/iracc/2418/.
Dávila, C., Paulus, N., Lemort, V., Experimental investigation of a gas driven absorption heat pump and in-situ monitoring. Proceedings of the 9th Heat Powered Cycles International Conference (HPC 2021), 2022 https://heatpoweredcycles.eng.ed.ac.uk/sites/heatpoweredcycles.eng.ed.ac.uk/files/attachments/HPC2021-proceedings.pdf.
de Bruijn, F., The current status of fuel cell technology for mobile and stationary applications. Green Chem., 7, 2005, 132, 10.1039/b415317k.
de Gouw, J.A., Parrish, D.D., Frost, G.J., Trainer, M., Reduced emissions of CO2, NOx, and SO2 from U.S. power plants owing to switch from coal to natural gas with combined cycle technology. Earth's Future 2 (2014), 75–82, 10.1002/2013EF000196.
Dehghan, B., B, Toppi, T., Aprile, M., Motta, M., Seasonal performance assessment of three alternative gas-driven absorption heat pump cycles. J. Build. Eng., 31, 2020, 101434, 10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101434.
Edelblute, C.M., Heller, L.C., Malik, M.A., Heller, R., Activated air produced by shielded sliding discharge plasma mediates plasmid DNA delivery to mammalian cells. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 112 (2015), 2583–2590, 10.1002/bit.25660.
Eichhorn, L., Thudium, M., Jüttner, B., The diagnosis and treatment of carbon monoxide poisoning. Dtsch Arztebl Int, 2018, 10.3238/arztebl.2018.0863.
Element Energy. D1.7 - summary report on specifications for newest model deployment in PACE. PACE - Pathway to a Competitive European Fuel Cell micro-CHP Market, 2021 https://pace-energy.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/PACE-D1.7-2021-update-FV.pdf.
ELIA. Belgium's 2022 Electricity Mix: the Increase in Renewable Energy and Availability of Nuclear Power Plants Kept Exports High. 2023 Brussels https://www.elia.be/-/media/project/elia/shared/documents/press-releases/2023/20230106_energymix2022_en_v2.pdf.
Elmer, T., Worall, M., Wu, S., Riffat, S.B., Fuel cell technology for domestic built environment applications: state of-the-art review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 42 (2015), 913–931, 10.1016/j.rser.2014.10.080.
Energie+, Emissions de polluants liée à la consommation énergétique. 2007 [WWW Document] https://energieplus-lesite.be/theories/consommation-energetique/les-emissions-de-polluants-liee-a-la-consommation-energetique/ accessed 4.17.23.
European Commission. EN 15502-1 - Gas-fired Heating Boilers - Part 1: General Requirements and Tests. 2021.
European Commission. EN 12309-1 - Gas-fired Sorption Appliances for Heating And/or Cooling with a Net Heat Input Not Exceeding 70 kW - Part 1: Terms and Definitions. 2014.
European Commission. EN 590:2009 - Automotive Fuels - Diesel - Requirements and Test Methods. 2009.
Fouad, F.H., Peters, R.W., Sisiopiku, V.P., Sullivan, A.J., Ahluwalia, R.K., Global Assessment of Hydrogen Technologies – Task 5 Report Use of Fuel Cell Technology in Electric Power Generation., 2007, 10.2172/923761 Golden, CO (United States).
Fritsche, U., Rausch, L., Life Cycle Analysis of GHG and Air Pollutant Emissions from Renewable and Conventional Electricity, Heating, and Transport Fuel Options in the EU until 2030 - ETC/ACC Technical Paper 2009/18. 2009, Bilthoven https://www.eionet.europa.eu/etcs/etc-atni/products/etc-atni-reports/etcacc_tp_2009_18_lca_ghg_ae_options_2013-2030/@@download/file/ETCACC_TP_2009_18_LCA_GHG_AE_2013-2030.pdf.
Fuentes, E., Arce, L., Salom, J., A review of domestic hot water consumption profiles for application in systems and buildings energy performance analysis. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 81 (2018), 1530–1547, 10.1016/J.RSER.2017.05.229.
Fumey, B., Buetler, T., Vogt, U.F., Ultra-low NOx emissions from catalytic hydrogen combustion. Appl. Energy 213 (2018), 334–342, 10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.01.042.
Galloway, J.N., Leach, A.M., Bleeker, A., Erisman, J.W., A chronology of human understanding of the nitrogen cycle. Phil. Trans. Biol. Sci., 368, 2013, 20130120, 10.1098/rstb.2013.0120.
Gas.be, 2021. Historique des degrés-jours à partir de 1961 [WWW Document]. URL https://a.storyblok.com/f/174880/x/b6820dc58a/jaar-2021-total.xls (accessed 5.4.24).
Geddes, J.A., Murphy, J.G., The science of smog: a chemical understanding of ground level ozone and fine particulate matter. Metropolitan Sustainability, 2012, Elsevier, 205–230, 10.1533/9780857096463.3.205.
Graedel, T.E., Sulfur dioxide, sulfate aerosol, and urban ozone. Geophys. Res. Lett. 3 (1976), 181–184, 10.1029/GL003i003p00181.
Grzywa-Celińska, A., Krusiński, A., Milanowski, J., ‘Smoging kills’ – effects of air pollution on human respiratory system. Ann. Agric. Environ. Med. 27 (2020), 1–5, 10.26444/aaem/110477.
Guney, M.S., Tepe, Y., Classification and assessment of energy storage systems. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 75 (2017), 1187–1197, 10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.102.
Haeseldonckx, D., D'haeseleer, W., The use of the natural-gas pipeline infrastructure for hydrogen transport in a changing market structure. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 32 (2007), 1381–1386, 10.1016/J.IJHYDENE.2006.10.018.
Hall, J.E., Hooker, P., Jeffrey, K.E., Gas detection of hydrogen/natural gas blends in the gas industry. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 46 (2021), 12555–12565, 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.08.200.
Hamra, G.B., Guha, N., Cohen, A., Laden, F., Raaschou-Nielsen, O., Samet, J.M., Vineis, P., Forastiere, F., Saldiva, P., Yorifuji, T., Loomis, D., Outdoor particulate matter exposure and lung cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Environ. Health Perspect. 122 (2014), 906–911, 10.1289/ehp/1408092.
Hanrahan, G., Air pollutants and associated chemical and photochemical processes. Key Concepts in Environmental Chemistry, 2012, Elsevier, 215–242, 10.1016/B978-0-12-374993-2.10007-X.
Jedlikowski, A., Englart, S., Cepiński, W., Badura, M., Ara Sayegh, M., Reducing energy consumption for electrical gas preheating processes. Therm. Sci. Eng. Prog., 19, 2020, 100600, 10.1016/j.tsep.2020.100600.
Jiang, L., Hiltunen, E., He, X., Zhu, L., A questionnaire case study to investigate public awareness of smog pollution in China's rural areas. Sustainability, 8, 2016, 1111, 10.3390/su8111111.
Johnson, C.E., Derwent, R.G., Relative radiative forcing consequences of global emissions of hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and NOx from human activities estimated with a zonally-averaged two-dimensional model. Clim. Change 34 (1996), 439–462, 10.1007/BF00139301.
Karvountzi, G.C., Duby, P.F., Comparison of a multi-megawatt high temperature fuel cell system with reciprocating engines and aero-derivative gas turbines. Volume 8: Energy Systems: Analysis, Thermodynamics and Sustainability; Sustainable Products and Processes, 2008, ASMEDC, 741–749, 10.1115/IMECE2008-68933.
Kee, R.J., Zhu, H., Sukeshini, A.M., Jackson, G.S., Solid oxide fuel cells: operating principles, current challenges, and the role of syngas. Combust. Sci. Technol. 180 (2008), 1207–1244, 10.1080/00102200801963458.
Kistner, L., Schubert, F.L., Minke, C., Bensmann, A., Hanke-Rauschenbach, R., Techno-economic and environmental comparison of internal combustion engines and solid oxide fuel cells for ship applications. J. Power Sources, 508, 2021, 230328, 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2021.230328.
Kuo, Y.-M., Zhao, E., Li, M.-J., Yu, H., Qin, J., Ambient precursor gaseous pollutants and meteorological conditions controlling variations of particulate matter concentrations. Clean, 45, 2017, 1600655, 10.1002/clen.201600655.
Lammel, G., Graßl, H., Greenhouse effect of NOX. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Control Ser. 2 (1995), 40–45, 10.1007/BF02987512.
Landis, M.S., Edgerton, E.S., Field intercomparison of continuous ambient FRM and FEM NO2 instruments in the Athabasca Oil Sands Region, Alberta, Canada and the potential impact on ambient regulatory compliance. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 74 (2024), 11–24, 10.1080/10962247.2023.2279169.
Lichtenegger, K., Hebenstreit, B., Pointner, C., Schmidl, C., Höftberger, E., The role of leak air in a double-wall chimney. Heat and Mass Transfer 51 (2015), 787–794 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00231-014-1454-6.
McDonald, R., Evaluation of gas, oil and wood pellet fueled residential heating system emissions characteristics. Upton, NY (United States), 2009, 10.2172/1015127.
Minei, Y., Okajima, K., Yasuda, M., Ube, R., PEMFC system for utilization of exhaust gas from bright heat treatment furnace. Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Applied Energy (ICAE2020), 2020, 10.46855/energy-proceedings-7263.
Mishra, S., Is smog innocuous? Air pollution and cardiovascular disease. Indian Heart J. 69 (2017), 425–429, 10.1016/j.ihj.2017.07.016.
Napoli, R., Gandiglio, M., Lanzini, A., Santarelli, M., Techno-economic analysis of PEMFC and SOFC micro-CHP fuel cell systems for the residential sector. Energy Build. 103 (2015), 131–146, 10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.06.052.
Papadopoulo, M., Kaddouh, S., Pacitto, P., Prieur-Vernat, A., Life Cycle Assessment of the European Natural Gas Chain Focused on Three Environmental Impact Indicators. 2011 Brussels https://www.cgoa.cz/informacezezahranici/pdfdoc/marcogazudrzitelnost/2011/WG-LCA-12-01_D023_WG_LCA_Final_Report_Life_Cycle_Assessment.pdf.
Park, B., Kim, S., Park, S., Kim, M., Kim, T.Y., Park, H., Development of multi-item air quality monitoring system based on real-time data. Appl. Sci., 11, 2021, 9747, 10.3390/app11209747.
Park, J.O., Hong, S.-G., Design and optimization of HT-PEMFC MEAs. High Temperature Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells, 2016, Springer International Publishing, Cham, 331–352, 10.1007/978-3-319-17082-4_16.
Parravicini, M., Barro, C., Boulouchos, K., Compensation for the differences in LHV of diesel-OME blends by using injector nozzles with different number of holes: emissions and combustion. Fuel, 259, 2020, 116166, 10.1016/j.fuel.2019.116166.
Patnaik, P.P., Acharya, S.K., Padhi, D., Mohanty, U.K., Experimental investigation on CI engine performance using steam injection and ferric chloride as catalyst. Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal 19 (2016), 2073–2080, 10.1016/j.jestch.2016.07.006.
Paulus, N., Comprehensive Assessment of Fuel Cell Types: A Novel Fuel Cell Classification System. 2024 http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4800979 in preparation.
Paulus, N., Decarbonization potentials of fuel cell technologies in micro- cogeneration application. Progress in Energy Under Review, 2024 https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4802509.
Paulus, N., Developing individual carbon footprint reduction pathways from carbon budgets: examples with Wallonia and France. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 198, 2024, 114428 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2024.114428.
Paulus, N., Confronting Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) to IPPC's +2°C carbon budgets through the analyses of France and Wallonia climate policies. Journal of Ecological Engineering, 24, 2023, 10.12911/22998993/162984.
Paulus, N., Dávila, C., Lemort, V., Field-test economic and ecological performance of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) used in micro-combined heat and power residential applications (micro-CHP). Proceedings of the 35th International Conference on Efficiency, Cost, Optimization, Simulation and Environmental Impact of Energy Systems (ECOS2022), 2022, 10.11581/dtu.00000267.
Paulus, N., Dávila, C., Lemort, V., Correlation between field-test and laboratory results for a Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) used as a residential cogeneration system. Proceeding of the 30th “Congrès Annuel de la Société Française de Thermique” (SFT 2022), 2022, 10.25855/SFT2022-119.
Paulus, N., Job, N., Lemort, V., Investigation of Degradation Mechanisms and Corresponding Recovery Procedures of a Field-Tested Residential Cogeneration Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell. 2024 in preparation https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4811842 in preparation.
Paulus, N., Lemort, V., Pollutant testing (NOx, SO2 and CO) of commercialized micro-combined heat and power (mCHP) fuel cells. Proceedings of the 36th International Conference on Efficiency, Cost, Optimization, Simulation and Environmental Impact of Energy Systems (ECOS2023), 2023, 10.52202/069564-0104.
Paulus, N., Lemort, V., Field-test performance models of a residential micro-cogeneration system based on the hybridization of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell and a gas condensing boiler. Energy Convers. Manag., 295, 2023, 10.1016/j.enconman.2023.117634.
Paulus, N., Lemort, V., Experimental investigation of a Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) used in residential cogeneration applications. Proceedings of the 36th International Conference on Efficiency, Cost, Optimization, Simulation and Environmental Impact of Energy Systems (ECOS2023), 2023, 10.52202/069564-0056.
Paulus, N., Lemort, V., Establishing the energy content of natural gas residential consumption : example with Belgian field-test applications. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci., 1185, 2023, 012013, 10.1088/1755-1315/1185/1/012013.
Paulus, N., Lemort, V., Field-test performance of solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) for residential cogeneration applications. Proceedings of the 7th International High Performance Buildings Conference at Purdue (Herrick 2022), 2022 https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/ihpbc/405/.
Paulus, N., Lemort, V., Grid-impact factors of field-tested residential proton exchange membrane fuel cell systems. Proceedings of the 14th REHVA HVAC World Congress (CLIMA2022), 2022, 10.34641/CLIMA.2022.176.
Pavlovic, J., Tansini, A., Fontaras, G., Ciuffo, B., Garcia Otura, M., Trentadue, G., Suarez Bertoa, R., Millo, F., The impact of WLTP on the official fuel consumption and electric range of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles in europe. https://doi.org/10.4271/2017-24-0133, 2017.
Payne, R., Love, J., Kah, M., Generating electricity at 60% electrical efficiency from 1 - 2 kWe SOFC products. ECS Trans. 25 (2009), 231–239, 10.1149/1.3205530.
Peng, R.D., Coarse particulate matter air pollution and hospital admissions for cardiovascular and respiratory diseases among medicare patients. JAMA, 299, 2008, 2172, 10.1001/jama.299.18.2172.
Perna, A., Minutillo, M., Residential cogeneration and trigeneration with fuel cells. Current Trends and Future Developments on (Bio-) Membranes, 2020, Elsevier, 197–239, 10.1016/B978-0-12-817807-2.00009-5.
Pilusa, T.J., Mollagee, M.M., Muzenda, E., Reduction of vehicle exhaust emissions from diesel engines using the whale concept filter. Aerosol Air Qual. Res. 12 (2012), 994–1006, 10.4209/aaqr.2012.04.0100.
Portmann, R.W., Daniel, J.S., Ravishankara, A.R., Stratospheric ozone depletion due to nitrous oxide: influences of other gases. Phil. Trans. Biol. Sci. 367 (2012), 1256–1264, 10.1098/rstb.2011.0377.
Proszak-Miasik, D., Rabczak, S., Methods for reducing low emissions from heating devices in single- family housing. E3S Web of Conferences, 45, 2018, 00069, 10.1051/E3SCONF/20184500069.
Psomopoulos, C.S., Kaminaris, S.D., Ioannidis, G.Ch, Themelis, N.J., Contribution of WTE plants in EU's targets for renewables. A review until 2014. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Sustainable Solid Waste Management (ATHEN 2017), 2017 http://uest.ntua.gr/athens2017/proceedings/pdfs/Athens2017_Psomopoulos_Kaminaris_Ioannidis_Themelis.pdf.
Psomopoulos, C.S., Skoula, I., Karras, C., Chatzimpiros, A., Chionidis, M., Electricity savings and CO2 emissions reduction in buildings sector: How important the network losses are in the calculation?. Energy 35 (2010), 485–490 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2009.10.016.
Rabiu, A.M., Dlangamandla, N., Ulleberg, Ø., Novel heat integration in a methane reformer and high temperature PEM fuel cell-based mCHP system. APCBEE Procedia 3 (2012), 17–22, 10.1016/j.apcbee.2012.06.039.
Rana, M., Mittal, S.K., Beig, G., Enhanced ozone production in ambient air at patiala semi-urban site during crop residue burning events. MAPAN 34 (2019), 273–288, 10.1007/s12647-019-00315-x.
Raza, W., Saeed, S., Saulat, H., Gul, H., Sarfraz, M., Sonne, C., Sohn, Z.-H., Brown, R.J.C., Kim, K.-H., A review on the deteriorating situation of smog and its preventive measures in Pakistan. J. Clean. Prod., 279, 2021, 123676, 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123676.
Robur. Handbook for the K18 range. D-MNL049 - Rev J, 2020 https://fs.hubspotusercontent00.net/hubfs/3937356/doc/D-MNL049_J_19MCLSVI050_Prontuario_K18_Simply_Hybri_Sunrise_EN.pdf.
Rotmans, J., Den Elzen, M.G.J., A model-based approach to the calculation of global warming potentials (GWP). Int. J. Climatol. 12 (1992), 865–874, 10.1002/joc.3370120809.
Rypdal, K., Rive, N., Berntsen, T., Fagerli, H., Klimont, Z., Mideksa, T.K., Fuglestvedt, J.S., Climate and air quality-driven scenarios of ozone and aerosol precursor abatement. Environ. Sci. Pol. 12 (2009), 855–869, 10.1016/j.envsci.2009.08.002.
Schumann, P., Graf, C., Friedrich, K.A., Modeling and simulation of a PEM fuel cell system for aircraft applications. ECS Trans. 12 (2008), 651–661, 10.1149/1.2921590.
Sharaf, O.Z., Orhan, M.F., An overview of fuel cell technology: fundamentals and applications. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 32 (2014), 810–853, 10.1016/J.RSER.2014.01.012.
Sher, E., Environmental aspects of air pollution. Handbook of Air Pollution from Internal Combustion Engines, 1998, Elsevier, 27–41, 10.1016/B978-012639855-7/50041-7.
Shipley, A.M., Elliott, R.N., Phantom power: the status of fuel cell technology markets. Energy Eng. J. Assoc. Energy Eng. 101 (2004), 26–45, 10.1080/01998590409509255.
Signal Instruments. Model 4000VML Heated Vacuum Chemiluminescent NOx Analyser. 2006 4000VML.pdf/2006. https://www.renovaqualidadedoar.com.br/site/file/4000vml.pdf.
Siler-Evans, K., Azevedo, I.L., Morgan, M.G., Marginal emissions factors for the U.S. Electricity system. Environ. Sci. Technol. 46 (2012), 4742–4748, 10.1021/es300145v.
Sillman, S., Tropospheric ozone and photochemical smog. Treatise on Geochemistry, 2003, Elsevier, 407–431, 10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/09053-8.
Solomon, J.M., Pachamuthu, S., Arulanandan, J.J., Thangavel, N., Sathyamurthy, R., Electrochemical decomposition of NOx and oxidation of HC and CO emissions by developing electrochemical cells for diesel engine emission control. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Control Ser. 27 (2020), 32229–32238, 10.1007/s11356-019-07327-9.
Speight, J.G., Energy security and the environment. Natural Gas: A Basic Handbook, 2019, Gulf Professional Publishing, 361–390, 10.1016/B978-0-12-809570-6.00010-2.
Srinivasan, S., Miller, E., Applications and economics of fuel-cell power plants/power sources. Fuel Cells, 2006, Springer, US, Boston, MA, 575–605, 10.1007/0-387-35402-6_10.
Teledyne API. The Model T200 Chemiluminescence NO/NO2/NOx Analyzer. 2021 https://www.teledyne-api.com/prod/Downloads/SAL000046J%20-%20T200.pdf SAL000046J.
Teledyne API. The Model T500U CAPS NO2 Analyzer. 2021 https://www.teledyne-api.com/prod/Downloads/SAL000078J%20-%20T500U.pdf SAL000078J.
The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers, 2006. Degree-days: theory and application (TM41: 2006) [WWW Document]. URL https://www.cibse.org/knowledge-research/knowledge-portal/technical-memorandum-41-degree-days-theory-and-application-2006-pdf (accessed 7.4.23).
Thermo Scientific. The Thermo Scientific TM Model 42i NO-NO2-NOx. 2021 EPM_42i_DS_0921 https://assets.thermofisher.com/TFS-Assets/LSG/Specification-Sheets/EPM-42i-Datasheet.pdf.
Thomson, A.J., Giannopoulos, G., Pretty, J., Baggs, E.M., Richardson, D.J., Biological sources and sinks of nitrous oxide and strategies to mitigate emissions. Phil. Trans. Biol. Sci. 367 (2012), 1157–1168, 10.1098/rstb.2011.0415.
TSI Incorporated. An Overview of Measurements, Methods and Calculations Used in Combustion Analysis. 2004 https://tsi.com/getmedia/02417ee5-cccc-4dc7-80bc-f7f10924d20a/CA-basic-2980175?ext=.pdf.
Turconi, R., Boldrin, A., Astrup, T., Life cycle assessment (LCA) of electricity generation technologies: overview, comparability and limitations. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 28 (2013), 555–565, 10.1016/J.RSER.2013.08.013.
Urdampilleta, I., Uribe, F., Rockward, T., Brosha, E.L., Pivovar, B., Garzon, F.H., PEMFC poisoning with H2S: dependence on operating conditions. ECS Trans. 11 (2007), 831–842, 10.1149/1.2780996.
Varma, D.R., Mulay, S., Chemtob, S., Carbon monoxide. Handbook of Toxicology of Chemical Warfare Agents, 2015, Elsevier, 267–286, 10.1016/B978-0-12-800159-2.00021-X.
VHK for the European Commission. Space and combination heaters - ecodesign and energy labelling. Task 1 - Scope – Policies & Standards, 2019 https://www.eceee.org/static/media/uploads/site-2/ecodesign/products/Space%20and%20combination%20heaters/boilers_task_1_final_report_july_2019.pdf.
Vrekoussis, M., Pikridas, M., Rousogenous, C., Christodoulou, A., Desservettaz, M., Sciare, J., Richter, A., Bougoudis, I., Savvides, C., Papadopoulos, C., Local and regional air pollution characteristics in Cyprus: a long-term trace gases observations analysis. Sci. Total Environ., 845, 2022, 157315, 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157315.
Wade, J., Farrauto, R.J., Controlling emissions of pollutants in urban areas. Metropolitan Sustainability, 2012, Elsevier, 260–291, 10.1533/9780857096463.3.260.
Wagner, A.L., Wagner, J.P., Krause, T.R., Carter, J.D., Autothermal reforming catalyst development for fuel cell applications. Journal of Engines, 2002 https://www.jstor.org/stable/44743248.
Wen, T., Material research for planar SOFC stack. Solid State Ionics 148 (2002), 513–519, 10.1016/S0167-2738(02)00098-X.
Xu, S., Deng, Y., Webb, K., Wright, H., Dimick, P.S., Cremaschi, S., Eden, M.R., Sour gas sweetening technologies for distributed Resources – a process simulation study. Computer Aided Chemical Engineering 48 (2020), 1483–1488, 10.1016/B978-0-12-823377-1.50248-2.
Zhou, B., Cui, T., Li, D., Climate monitoring and formation mechanism of smog pollution in China. Chinese Journal of Urban and Environmental Studies 03, 2015, 10.1142/S234574811550013X.
Zlateva, P., Penkova, N., Krumov, K., Analysis of combustion efficiency at boilers operating on different fuels. 2020 7th International Conference on Energy Efficiency and Agricultural Engineering (EE&AE), 2020, IEEE, 1–4, 10.1109/EEAE49144.2020.9278784.
This website uses cookies to improve user experience. Read more
Save & Close
Accept all
Decline all
Show detailsHide details
Cookie declaration
About cookies
Strictly necessary
Performance
Strictly necessary cookies allow core website functionality such as user login and account management. The website cannot be used properly without strictly necessary cookies.
This cookie is used by Cookie-Script.com service to remember visitor cookie consent preferences. It is necessary for Cookie-Script.com cookie banner to work properly.
Performance cookies are used to see how visitors use the website, eg. analytics cookies. Those cookies cannot be used to directly identify a certain visitor.
Used to store the attribution information, the referrer initially used to visit the website
Cookies are small text files that are placed on your computer by websites that you visit. Websites use cookies to help users navigate efficiently and perform certain functions. Cookies that are required for the website to operate properly are allowed to be set without your permission. All other cookies need to be approved before they can be set in the browser.
You can change your consent to cookie usage at any time on our Privacy Policy page.
