[en] During atherogenesis, plaque macrophages take up and process deposited lipids, trigger inflammation, and form necrotic cores. The traditional inflammatory/anti-inflammatory paradigm has proven insufficient in explaining their complex disease-driving mechanisms. Instead, we now appreciate that macrophages exhibit remarkable heterogeneity and functional specialization in various pathological contexts, including atherosclerosis. Technical advances for studying individual cells, especially single-cell RNA sequencing, indeed allowed to identify novel macrophage subsets in both murine and human atherosclerosis, highlighting the existence of diverse macrophage activation states throughout pathogenesis. In addition, recent studies highlighted the role of the local microenvironment in shaping the macrophages' phenotype and function. However, this remains largely undescribed in the context of atherosclerosis. In this review we explore the origins of macrophages and their functional specialization, shedding light on the diverse sources of macrophage accumulation in the atherosclerotic plaque. Next, we discuss the phenotypic diversity observed in both murine and human atherosclerosis, elucidating their distinct functions and spatial distribution within plaques. Finally, we highlight the importance of the local microenvironment in both phenotypic and functional specialization of macrophages in atherosclerosis and elaborate on the need for spatial multiomics approaches to provide a better understanding of the different macrophage subsets' roles in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis.
Disciplines :
Cardiovascular & respiratory systems
Author, co-author :
Wieland, Elias B ; Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, Experimental Vascular Pathology, Department of Pathology, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, Maastricht, the Netherlands
Kempen, Laura ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département des sciences fonctionnelles (DSF) ; Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, Experimental Vascular Pathology, Department of Pathology, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, Maastricht, the Netherlands
Donners, Marjo Mpc; Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, Experimental Vascular Pathology, Department of Pathology, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, Maastricht, the Netherlands
Biessen, Erik Al; Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, Experimental Vascular Pathology, Department of Pathology, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, Maastricht, the Netherlands ; Institute for Molecular Cardiovascular Research, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
Goossens, Pieter; Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, Experimental Vascular Pathology, Department of Pathology, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, Maastricht, the Netherlands
Language :
English
Title :
Macrophage heterogeneity in atherosclerosis: A matter of context.
This work has been supported by the Dutch Heart Foundation (Dekker 2020T042 to P.G.). The authors would like to thank Catherine Labarca (Lipid Studios) for creating the scientific illustrations for this review.
Bjorkegren, J. L. M. and Lusis, A. J., Atherosclerosis: recent developments. Cell. 2022. 185: 1630–1645.
Ridker, P. M., Everett, B. M., Thuren, T., MacFadyen, J. G., Chang, W. H., Ballantyne, C., Fonseca, F. et al., Anti-inflammatory therapy with canakinumab for atherosclerotic disease. N Engl J Med. 2017. 377: 1119–1131.
Nahrendorf, M. and Swirski, F. K., Abandoning M1/M2 for a network model of macrophage function. Circ Res. 2016. 119: 414–417.
Stoger, J. L., Goossens, P. and de Winther, M. P., Macrophage heterogeneity: relevance and functional implications in atherosclerosis. Curr Vasc Pharmacol 2010. 8: 233–248.
Mills, C. D., Kincaid, K., Alt, J. M., Heilman, M. J. and Hill, A. M., M-1/M-2 macrophages and the Th1/Th2 paradigm. J Immunol 2000. 164: 6166–6173.
Sica, A. and Mantovani, A., Macrophage plasticity and polarization: in vivo veritas. J Clin Invest 2012. 122: 787–795.
Park, M. D., Silvin, A., Ginhoux, F. and Merad, M., Macrophages in health and disease. Cell 2022. 185: 4259–4279.
Zernecke, A., Winkels, H., Cochain, C., Williams, J. W., Wolf, D., Soehnlein, O., Robbins, C. S. et al., Meta-Analysis of leukocyte diversity in atherosclerotic mouse aortas. Circ Res. 2020. 127: 402–426.
Winkels, H., Ehinger, E., Vassallo, M., Buscher, K., Dinh, H. Q., Kobiyama, K., Hamers, A. A. J. et al., Atlas of the immune cell repertoire in mouse atherosclerosis defined by Single-Cell RNA-Sequencing and mass cytometry. Circ Res. 2018. 122: 1675–1688.
Fernandez, D. M., Rahman, A. H., Fernandez, N. F., Chudnovskiy, A., Amir, E. D., Amadori, L., Khan, N. S. et al., Single-cell immune landscape of human atherosclerotic plaques. Nat Med. 2019. 25: 1576–1588.
Wirka, R. C., Wagh, D., Paik, D. T., Pjanic, M., Nguyen, T., Miller, C. L., Kundu, R. et al., Atheroprotective roles of smooth muscle cell phenotypic modulation and the TCF21 disease gene as revealed by single-cell analysis. Nat Med. 2019. 25: 1280–1289.
Depuydt, M. A. C., Prange, K. H. M., Slenders, L., Ord, T., Elbersen, D., Boltjes, A., de Jager, S. C. A. et al., Microanatomy of the human atherosclerotic plaque by Single-Cell transcriptomics. Circ Res. 2020. 127: 1437–1455.
Goossens, P., Lu, C., Cao, J., Gijbels, M. J., Karel, J. M. H., Wijnands, E., Claes, B. S. R. et al., Integrating multiplex immunofluorescent and mass spectrometry imaging to map myeloid heterogeneity in its metabolic and cellular context. Cell Metab. 2022. 34: 1214–1225 e6.
Marx, V., Method of the year 2020: spatially resolved transcriptomics. Nat Methods 2021. 18: 1.
Guilliams, M., Thierry, G. R., Bonnardel, J. and Bajenoff, M., Establishment and maintenance of the macrophage niche. Immunity 2020. 52: 434–451.
van Furth, R. and Cohn, Z. A., The origin and kinetics of mononuclear phagocytes. J Exp Med. 1968. 128: 415–435.
Jenkins, S. J., Ruckerl, D., Cook, P. C., Jones, L. H., Finkelman, F. D., van Rooijen, N., MacDonald, A. S. et al., Local macrophage proliferation, rather than recruitment from the blood, is a signature of TH2 inflammation. Science 2011. 332: 1284–1288.
van de Laar, L., Saelens, W., De Prijck, S., Martens, L., Scott, C. L., Van Isterdael, G., Hoffmann, E. et al., Yolk sac macrophages, fetal liver, and adult monocytes can colonize an empty niche and develop into functional tissue-resident macrophages. Immunity 2016. 44: 755–768.
Molawi, K., Wolf, Y., Kandalla, P. K., Favret, J., Hagemeyer, N., Frenzel, K., Pinto, A. R. et al., Progressive replacement of embryo-derived cardiac macrophages with age. J Exp Med. 2014. 211: 2151–2158.
Yona, S., Kim, K. W., Wolf, Y., Mildner, A., Varol, D., Breker, M., Strauss-Ayali, D. et al., Fate mapping reveals origins and dynamics of monocytes and tissue macrophages under homeostasis. Immunity. 2013;38: 79–91.
Ginhoux, F. and Guilliams, M., Tissue-Resident macrophage ontogeny and homeostasis. Immunity 2016. 44: 439–449.
Varol, C., Mildner, A. and Jung, S., Macrophages: development and tissue specialization. Annu Rev Immunol 2015. 33: 643–675.
Weinberger, T., Esfandyari, D., Messerer, D., Percin, G., Schleifer, C., Thaler, R., Liu, L. et al., Ontogeny of arterial macrophages defines their functions in homeostasis and inflammation. Nat Commun. 2020. 11: 4549.
Ensan, S., Li, A., Besla, R., Degousee, N., Cosme, J., Roufaiel, M., Shikatani E. A. et al., Self-renewing resident arterial macrophages arise from embryonic CX3CR1(+) precursors and circulating monocytes immediately after birth. Nat Immunol. 2016. 17: 159–168.
Kiss, A. L., Inflammatory cytokines induce EMT in mesenteric mesothelial cells, and transdifferentiate them into macrophages. World J Res and Rev. 2018. 7: 6.
Feil, S., Fehrenbacher, B., Lukowski, R., Essmann, F., Schulze-Osthoff, K., Schaller, M. and Feil, R., Transdifferentiation of vascular smooth muscle cells to macrophage-like cells during atherogenesis. Circ Res. 2014. 115: 662–667.
Guilliams, M., De Kleer, I., Henri, S., Post, S., Vanhoutte, L., De Prijck, S., Deswarte, K. et al., Alveolar macrophages develop from fetal monocytes that differentiate into long-lived cells in the first week of life via GM-CSF. J Exp Med. 2013. 210: 1977–1992.
Guilliams, M. and Svedberg, F. R., Does tissue imprinting restrict macrophage plasticity? Nat Immunol 2021. 22: 118–127.
Williams, J. W., Zaitsev, K., Kim, K. W., Ivanov, S., Saunders, B. T., Schrank, P. R., Kim, K. et al., Limited proliferation capacity of aortic intima resident macrophages requires monocyte recruitment for atherosclerotic plaque progression. Nat Immunol 2020. 21: 1194–1204.
Robbins, C. S., Hilgendorf, I., Weber, G. F., Theurl, I., Iwamoto, Y., Figueiredo, J. L., Gorbatov, R. et al., Local proliferation dominates lesional macrophage accumulation in atherosclerosis. Nat Med. 2013. 19: 1166–1172.
Psaltis, P. J., Puranik, A. S., Spoon, D. B., Chue, C. D., Hoffman, S. J., Witt, T. A., Delacroix S. et al., Characterization of a resident population of adventitial macrophage progenitor cells in postnatal vasculature. Circ Res. 2014. 115: 364–375.
Hardtner, C., Kornemann, J., Krebs, K., Ehlert, C. A., Jander, A., Zou, J., Starz, C. et al., Inhibition of macrophage proliferation dominates plaque regression in response to cholesterol lowering. Basic Res Cardiol. 2020. 115: 78.
Allahverdian, S., Chehroudi, A. C., McManus, B. M., Abraham, T. and Francis, G. A., Contribution of intimal smooth muscle cells to cholesterol accumulation and macrophage-like cells in human atherosclerosis. Circulation 2014. 129: 1551–1559.
Rong, J. X., Shapiro, M., Trogan, E. and Fisher, E. A., Transdifferentiation of mouse aortic smooth muscle cells to a macrophage-like state after cholesterol loading. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2003. 100: 13531–13536.
Kim, K., Shim, D., Lee, J. S., Zaitsev, K., Williams, J. W., Kim, K. W., Jang, M. Y. et al., Transcriptome analysis reveals nonfoamy rather than foamy plaque macrophages are proinflammatory in atherosclerotic murine models. Circ Res. 2018. 123: 1127–1142.
Lin, J. D., Nishi, H., Poles, J., Niu, X., McCauley, C., Rahman, K. et al., Single-cell analysis of fate-mapped macrophages reveals heterogeneity, including stem-like properties, during atherosclerosis progression and regression. JCI Insight 2019. 4: e124574.
Cochain, C., Vafadarnejad, E., Arampatzi, P., Pelisek, J., Winkels, H., Ley, K., Wolf D. et al., Single-cell RNA-seq reveals the transcriptional landscape and heterogeneity of aortic macrophages in murine atherosclerosis. Circ Res. 2018. 122: 1661–1674.
Duewell, P., Kono, H., Rayner, K. J., Sirois, C. M., Vladimer, G., Bauernfeind, F. G., Abela, G. S. et al., NLRP3 inflammasomes are required for atherogenesis and activated by cholesterol crystals. Nature 2010. 464: 1357–1361.
Williams, J. W., Huang, L. H. and Randolph, G. J., Cytokine circuits in cardiovascular disease. Immunity. 2019;50: 941–954.
Willemsen, L., Chen, H. J., van Roomen, C., Griffith, G. R., Siebeler, R., Neele, A. E., Kroon, J. et al., Monocyte and macrophage lipid accumulation results in down-regulated type-I interferon responses. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2022. 9: 829877.
Dick, S. A., Macklin, J. A., Nejat, S., Momen, A., Clemente-Casares, X., Althagafi, M. G., Chen, J. et al. Self-renewing resident cardiac macrophages limit adverse remodeling following myocardial infarction. Nat Immunol. 2019. 20: 29–39.
Lim, H. Y., Lim, S. Y., Tan, C. K., Thiam, C. H., Goh, C. C., Carbajo, D., Chew, S.H.S. et al., Hyaluronan receptor LYVE-1-expressing macrophages maintain arterial tone through hyaluronan-mediated regulation of smooth muscle cell collagen. Immunity. 2018. 49: 1191.
Dick, S. A., Wong, A., Hamidzada, H., Nejat, S., Nechanitzky, R., Vohra, S., Mueller, B. et al., Three tissue resident macrophage subsets coexist across organs with conserved origins and life cycles. Sci Immunol. 2022. 7: eabf7777.
Keren-Shaul, H., Spinrad, A., Weiner, A., Matcovitch-Natan, O., Dvir-Szternfeld, R., Ulland, T. K. et al., A unique microglia type associated with restricting development of Alzheimer's disease. Cell. 2017. 169: 1276–1290 e17.
Guerrini, V. and Gennaro, M. L., Foam cells: one size doesn't fit all. Trends Immunol. 2019. 40: 1163–1179.
Kim, K. W., Williams, J. W., Wang, Y. T., Ivanov, S., Gilfillan, S., Colonna, M., Virgin, H. W. et al., MHC II+ resident peritoneal and pleural macrophages rely on IRF4 for development from circulating monocytes. J Exp Med. 2016. 213: 1951–1959.
Varasteh, Z., Mohanta, S., Li, Y., Lopez Armbruster, N., Braeuer, M., Nekolla, S. G., Habenicht, A. et al. Targeting mannose receptor expression on macrophages in atherosclerotic plaques of apolipoprotein E-knockout mice using (68)Ga-NOTA-anti-MMR nanobody: non-invasive imaging of atherosclerotic plaques. EJNMMI Res. 2019. 9: 5.
Giannotti, K. C., Weinert, S., Viana, M. N., Leiguez, E., Araujo, T. L. S., Laurindo, F. R. M., Lomonte, B. et al., A secreted phospholipase A(2) induces formation of smooth muscle foam cells which transdifferentiate to macrophage-like state. Molecules. 2019. 24: 3244.
Shankman, L. S., Gomez, D., Cherepanova, O. A., Salmon, M., Alencar, G. F., Haskins, R. M., Swiatlowska P. et al., KLF4-dependent phenotypic modulation of smooth muscle cells has a key role in atherosclerotic plaque pathogenesis. Nat Med. 2015. 21: 628–637.
Zernecke, A., Erhard, F., Weinberger, T., Schulz, C., Ley, K., Saliba, A. E. and Cochain C., Integrated single-cell analysis based classification of vascular mononuclear phagocytes in mouse and human atherosclerosis. Cardiovasc Res. 2022. 119: 1676–1689.
Willemsen, L. and de Winther, M. P., Macrophage subsets in atherosclerosis as defined by single-cell technologies. J Pathol. 2020. 250: 705–714.
Stoger, J. L., Gijbels, M. J., van der Velden, S., Manca, M., van der Loos, C. M., Biessen, E. A., Daemen M.J. et al., Distribution of macrophage polarization markers in human atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis. 2012. 225: 461–468.
Bengtsson, E., Hultman, K., Edsfeldt, A., Persson, A., Nitulescu, M., Nilsson, J., Gonçalves I. et al., CD163+ macrophages are associated with a vulnerable plaque phenotype in human carotid plaques. Sci Rep. 2020. 10: 14362.
Guo, L., Akahori, H., Harari, E., Smith, S. L., Polavarapu, R., Karmali, V., Otsuka, F. et al., CD163+ macrophages promote angiogenesis and vascular permeability accompanied by inflammation in atherosclerosis. J Clin Invest. 2018. 128: 1106–1124.
Yunoki, K., Inoue, T., Sugioka, K., Nakagawa, M., Inaba, M., Wada, S., Ohsawa, M. et al., Association between hemoglobin scavenger receptor and heme oxygenase-1-related anti-inflammatory mediators in human coronary stable and unstable plaques. Hum Pathol. 2013. 44: 2256–2265.
Jaitin, D. A., Adlung, L., Thaiss, C. A., Weiner, A., Li, B., Descamps, H., Lundgren, P. et al., Lipid-associated macrophages control metabolic homeostasis in a TREM2-dependent manner. Cell. 2019. 178: 686–698 e14.
Remmerie, A., Martens, L., Thone, T., Castoldi, A., Seurinck, R., Pavie, B., Roels, J. et al., Osteopontin expression identifies a subset of recruited macrophages distinct from kupffer cells in the fatty liver. Immunity. 2020. 53: 641–657 e14.
Nugent, A. A., Lin, K., van Lengerich, B., Lianoglou, S., Przybyla, L., Davis, S. S., Llapashtica, C. et al., TREM2 regulates microglial cholesterol metabolism upon chronic phagocytic challenge. Neuron. 2020. 105: 837–854 e9.
Fabre, T., Barron, A. M. S., Christensen, S. M., Asano, S., Bound, K., Lech, M. P., Wadsworth M.H. 2nd. et al., Identification of a broadly fibrogenic macrophage subset induced by type 3 inflammation. Sci Immunol. 2023. 8: eadd8945.
Lavin, Y., Winter, D., Blecher-Gonen, R., David, E., Keren-Shaul, H., Merad, M., Jung, S. et al., Tissue-resident macrophage enhancer landscapes are shaped by the local microenvironment. Cell. 2014. 159: 1312–1326.
Lacey, D. C., Achuthan, A., Fleetwood, A. J., Dinh, H., Roiniotis, J., Scholz, G. M., Chang, M.W. et al., Defining GM-CSF- and macrophage-CSF-dependent macrophage responses by in vitro models. J Immunol. 2012. 188: 5752–5765.
Rajavashisth, T. B., Andalibi, A., Territo, M. C., Berliner, J. A., Navab, M., Fogelman, A. M. and Lusis, A.J., Induction of endothelial cell expression of granulocyte and macrophage colony-stimulating factors by modified low-density lipoproteins. Nature. 1990. 344: 254–257.
Rajavashisth, T. B., Yamada, H. and Mishra, N. K., Transcriptional activation of the macrophage-colony stimulating factor gene by minimally modified LDL. Involvement of nuclear factor-kappa B. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1995. 15: 1591–1598.
Sinha, S. K., Miikeda, A., Fouladian, Z., Mehrabian, M., Edillor, C., Shih, D., Zhou, Z. et al., Local M-CSF (macrophage colony-stimulating factor) expression regulates macrophage proliferation and apoptosis in atherosclerosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2021. 41: 220–233.
Potteaux, S., Gautier, E. L., Hutchison, S. B., van Rooijen, N., Rader, D. J., Thomas, M. J., Sorci-Thomas, M.G. et al., Suppressed monocyte recruitment drives macrophage removal from atherosclerotic plaques of Apoe-/- mice during disease regression. J Clin Invest. 2011. 121: 2025–2036.
Shaposhnik, Z., Wang, X., Weinstein, M., Bennett, B. J. and Lusis, A. J., Granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor regulates dendritic cell content of atherosclerotic lesions. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2007. 27: 621–627.
Hansson, G. K. and Libby, P., The immune response in atherosclerosis: a double-edged sword. Nat Rev Immunol. 2006. 6: 508–519.
Goossens, P., Gijbels, M. J., Zernecke, A., Eijgelaar, W., Vergouwe, M. N., van der Made, I., Vanderlocht, J. et al., Myeloid type I interferon signaling promotes atherosclerosis by stimulating macrophage recruitment to lesions. Cell Metab. 2010. 12: 142–153.
Boshuizen, M. C. and de Winther, M. P., Interferons as essential modulators of atherosclerosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2015. 35: 1579–1588.
Wei, J., Sun, Z., Chen, Q. and Gu, J., Serum deprivation induced apoptosis in macrophage is mediated by autocrine secretion of type I IFNs. Apoptosis. 2006. 11: 545–554.
Inagaki, Y., Yamagishi, S., Amano, S., Okamoto, T., Koga, K. and Makita, Z., Interferon-gamma-induced apoptosis and activation of THP-1 macrophages. Life Sci. 2002. 71: 2499–2508.
Schirmer, S. H., Bot, P. T., Fledderus, J. O., van der Laan, A. M., Volger, O. L., Laufs, U., Böhm, M. et al., Blocking interferon beta stimulates vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and arteriogenesis. J Biol Chem. 2010. 285: 34677–34685.
Huynh, K., Distinct immune microenvironments in atherosclerotic plaques. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2020. 17: 7.
Guilliams, M., Bonnardel, J., Haest, B., Vanderborght, B., Wagner, C., Remmerie, A., Bujko, A. et al., Spatial proteogenomics reveals distinct and evolutionarily conserved hepatic macrophage niches. Cell. 2022. 185: 379–396 e38.