How much do conservation cropping practices mitigate runoff and soil erosion under Western European conditions: A focus on conservation tillage, tied ridging and winter cover crops
Clement, Timothée; Bielders, Charles L.; Degré, Aurore
Pollution; Soil Science; Agronomy and Crop Science
Abstract :
[en] AbstractConservation farming practices are known for their capacity to mitigate runoff and erosion, but the magnitude of their effectiveness is highly variable across studies. In order to better understand the contribution of environmental and management factors to their effectiveness, up to 37 studies reporting 271 individual trials were collated for a quantitative review regarding 3 common conservation agriculture‐related practices, at the plot scale and in a Western European context. Two different methods suitable for hierarchically structured data sets were used for the meta‐analyses—hierarchical nonparametric bootstrapping and linear random effects models—, yielding nearly identical average outcomes but differing in terms of confidence intervals. We found that, on average, winter cover crops reduce cumulative seasonal (autumn‐winter) runoff by 68% and soil losses by 72% compared with a bare soil. The occurrence and intensity of stubble tillage on the control plot is a key explanatory variable for the mitigation effect of winter cover crops. In potato crops, tied ridging reduces cumulative seasonal (spring–summer) runoff by a mean of 70% and soil erosion by 92%. Conservation (non‐inversion) tillage techniques alleviate cumulative seasonal overland flow by 27% and associated sediments losses by 66%, but strong evidence of publication bias was detected for this farming practice, probably leading to an overestimation of its effectiveness. These mitigation effects are shown to be much greater for spring crops than for winter crops, and to increase with time since ploughing was stopped. The type of conservation tillage scheme strongly affects the ability to attenuate surface flows. Intensive non‐inversion tillage systems relying on repeated use of (powered) tillage operations appear to be the least effective for reducing both water and sediment losses. The best performing scheme against runoff would be a deep (non‐inversion) tillage (−61%), while against erosion it would be a no‐till system (−82%). Although several explanatory factors were identified, there remains a high (unexplained) variability between trials effect sizes, thus not attributable to pure sampling variability. Meanwhile, this review provides farm advisors or policy makers with guidance on the contexts in which implementation of such conservation practices should be supported so as to maximize expected benefits.
Disciplines :
Agriculture & agronomy
Author, co-author :
Clement, Timothée ; Earth and Life Institute, Environmental Sciences Université catholique de Louvain Louvain‐la‐Neuve Belgium
Bielders, Charles L.; Earth and Life Institute, Environmental Sciences Université catholique de Louvain Louvain‐la‐Neuve Belgium
Degré, Aurore ; Université de Liège - ULiège > TERRA Research Centre > Echanges Eau - Sol - Plantes
Language :
English
Title :
How much do conservation cropping practices mitigate runoff and soil erosion under Western European conditions: A focus on conservation tillage, tied ridging and winter cover crops
Adams, D. C., Gurevitch, J., & Rosenberg, M. S. (1997). Resampling tests for meta-analysis of ecological data. Ecological Society of America, 78, article 4. https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(1997)078[1277:RTFMAO]2.0.CO;2
Akaike, H. (1974). A new look at the statistical model identification. IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, 19(6), 716–723. https://doi.org/10.1109/TAC.1974.1100705
Alletto, L., Coquet, Y., Benoit, P., Heddadj, D., & Barriuso, E. (2010). Tillage management effects on pesticide fate in soils. A Review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 30(2), 367–400. https://doi.org/10.1051/agro/2009018
Bach, M., Huber, A., & Frede, H.-G. (2001). Input pathways and river load of pesticides in Germany—A national scale modeling assessment. Water Science and Technology, 43, 261–268. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2001.0301
Bartoń, K. (2022). Package “MuMIn”. Multi-Model Inference. https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/MuMIn/MuMIn.pdf
Beck, H. E., Zimmermann, N. E., McVicar, T. R., Vergopolan, N., Berg, A., & Wood, E. F. (2018). Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution. Scientific Data, 5(1), 214. https://doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2018.214
Begg, C. B., & Berlin, J. A. (1988). Publication bias: A problem in interpreting medical data. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series A (Statistics in Society), 151(3), 419. https://doi.org/10.2307/2982993
Berdeni, D., Turner, A., Grayson, R. P., Llanos, J., Holden, J., Firbank, L. G., Lappage, M. G., Hunt, S. P. F., Chapman, P. J., Hodson, M. E., Helgason, T., Watt, P. J., & Leake, J. R. (2021). Soil quality regeneration by grass-clover leys in arable rotations compared to permanent grassland: Effects on wheat yield and resilience to drought and flooding. Soil and Tillage Research, 212(105), 5037. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2021.105037
Blanchy, G., Bragato, G., Di Bene, C., Jarvis, N., Larsbo, M., Meurer, K., & Garré, S. (2023). Soil and crop management practices and the water regulation functions of soils: A qualitative synthesis of meta-analyses relevant to European agriculture. The Soil, 9(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-9-1-2023
Blanco-Canqui, H. (2018). Cover crops and water quality. Agronomy Journal, 110(5), 1633–1647. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj2018.02.0077
Blanco-Canqui, H., & Lal, R. (2010). Principles of soil conservation and management. Springer Netherlands.
Blanco-Canqui, H., & Ruis, S. J. (2020). Cover crop impacts on soil physical properties: A review. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 84(5), 1527–1576. https://doi.org/10.1002/saj2.20129
Blanco-Canqui, H., & Wortmann, C. S. (2020). Does occasional tillage undo the ecosystem services gained with no-till? A Review. Soil and Tillage Research, 198(104), 534. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2019.104534
Boardman, J., Evans, R., & Ford, J. (2003). Muddy floods on the south downs, southern England: Problem and responses. Environmental Science & Policy, 6(1), 69–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1462-9011(02)00125-9
Bouma, J. A., Hegde, S. S., & Lasage, R. (2016). Assessing the returns to water harvesting: A meta-analysis. Agricultural Water Management, 163, 100–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2015.08.012
Brychta, J., Janeček, M., & Walmsley, A. (2018). Crop-management factor calculation using weights of spatio-temporal distribution of rainfall erosivity. Soil and Water Research, 13(3), 150–160. https://doi.org/10.17221/100/2017-SWR
Carter, M. R. (1991). Evaluation of shallow tillage for spring cereals on a fine sandy loam. 2. Soil physical, chemical and biological properties. Soil and Tillage Research, 21(1), 37–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-1987(91)90004-H
Chandler, J., Cumpston, M., Thomas, J., Higgins, J. P. T., Deeks, J. J., & Clarke, M. J. (2021). Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions (Cochrane). www.training.cochrane.org/handbook
Chen, J., Xiao, H., Li, Z., Liu, C., Ning, K., & Tang, C. (2020). How effective are soil and water conservation measures (SWCMs) in reducing soil and water losses in the red soil hilly region of China? A meta-analysis of field plot data. Science of the Total Environment, 735(139), 517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139517
Clement, T., Bielders, C. L., Degré, A., Manssens, G., & Foucart, G. (2023). Soil pitting mitigates runoff, erosion and pesticide surface losses in maize crops in the Belgian loess belt. Soil and Tillage Research, 234(105), 853. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2023.105853
Dabney, S. M., Delgado, J. A., & Reeves, D. W. (2001). Using winter cover crops to improve soil and water quality. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 32(7–8), 1221–1250. https://doi.org/10.1081/CSS-100104110
Daryanto, S., Wang, L., & Jacinthe, P.-A. (2017). Impacts of no-tillage management on nitrate loss from corn, soybean and wheat cultivation: A meta-analysis. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 383. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-12383-7
D'Haene, K., Sleutel, S., De Neve, S., Gabriels, D., & Hofman, G. (2009). The effect of reduced tillage agriculture on carbon dynamics in silt loam soils. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 84(3), 249–265. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10705-008-9240-9
Dlapa, P., Hriník, D., Hrabovský, A., Šimkovic, I., Žarnovičan, H., Sekucia, F., & Kollár, J. (2020). The impact of land-use on the hierarchical pore size distribution and water retention properties in loamy soils. Watermark, 12(2), 339. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020339
Du, X., Jian, J., Du, C., & Stewart, R. D. (2022). Conservation management decreases surface runoff and soil erosion. International Soil and Water Conservation Research, 10(2), 188–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iswcr.2021.08.001
Efron, B. (1979). Bootstrap methods: Another look at the jackknife. The Annals of Statistics, 7(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1214/aos/1176344552
Elias, D., Wang, L., & Jacinthe, P.-A. (2018). A meta-analysis of pesticide loss in runoff under conventional tillage and no-till management. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 190(2), 79. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-6441-1
Evrard, O., Bielders, C. L., Vandaele, K., & van Wesemael, B. (2007). Spatial and temporal variation of muddy floods in central Belgium, off-site impacts and potential control measures. Catena, 70(3), 443–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2006.11.011
Falloon, P., & Betts, R. (2010). Climate impacts on European agriculture and water management in the context of adaptation and mitigation—The importance of an integrated approach. Science of the Total Environment, 408(23), 5667–5687. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.05.002
Fu, Z., Hu, W., Beare, M., Thomas, S., Carrick, S., Dando, J., Langer, S., Müller, K., Baird, D., & Lilburne, L. (2021). Land use effects on soil hydraulic properties and the contribution of soil organic carbon. Journal of Hydrology, 602, 6741. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.126741
Garré, S., Jarvis, N., Koestel, J., Di Bene, C., & Hassink, J. (2022). CLIMASOMA. Climate change adaptation through soil and crop management: Synthesis and ways forward (Final Report Deliverable WP5.D1). European Joint Programme SOIL.
Godfray, H. C. J., Beddington, J. R., Crute, I. R., Haddad, L., Lawrence, D., Muir, J. F., Pretty, J., Robinson, S., Thomas, S. M., & Toulmin, C. (2010). Food Security: The Challenge of Feeding 9 Billion People. Science, 327(5967), 812–818. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1185383
Government of Canada. (2023). Historical Data—Climate—Environment and Climate Change Canada. https://climate.weather.gc.ca/historical_data/search_historic_data_e.html
Haddaway, N. R., & Bayliss, H. R. (2015). Shades of grey: Two forms of grey literature important for reviews in conservation. Biological Conservation, 191, 827–829. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2015.08.018
Harrell, F. E., Lee, K. L., & Mark, D. B. (1996). Multivariable prognostic models: Issues in developing models, evaluating assumptions and adequacy, and measuring and reducing errors. Statistics in Medicine, 15(4), 361–387. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0258(19960229)15:4<361::AID-SIM168>3.0.CO;2-4
Harrer, M., Cuijpers, P., Furukawa, T., & Ebert, D. (2022). Doing meta-analysis with R: A hands-on guide. Chapman and Hall Book.
Hartmann, P., Zink, A., Fleige, H., & Horn, R. (2012). Effect of compaction, tillage and climate change on soil water balance of arable Luvisols in Northwest Germany. Soil and Tillage Research, 124, 211–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2012.06.004
Hedges, L. V., Gurevitch, J., & Curtis, P. S. (1999). The meta-analysis of response ratios in experimental ecology. Ecology, 80(4), 1150–1156.
Heikkinen, J., Ketoja, E., Nuutinen, V., & Regina, K. (2013). Declining trend of carbon in Finnish cropland soils in 1974–2009. Global Change Biology, 19(5), 1456–1469. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12137
Higgins, J. P. T., Li, T., & Deeks, J. J. (2022). Chapter 6: Choosing effect measures and computing estimates of effect. In Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions (Cochrane). www.training.cochrane.org/handbook
Hopewell, S., McDonald, S., Clarke, M. J., & Egger, M. (2010). Grey literature in meta-analyses of randomized trials of health care interventions. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2007(2), MR000010. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.MR000010.pub3
Jensen, J. L., Schjønning, P., Watts, C. W., Christensen, B. T., Peltre, C., & Munkholm, L. J. (2019). Relating soil C and organic matter fractions to soil structural stability. Geoderma, 337, 834–843. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2018.10.034
Jia, L., Zhao, W., Fu, B., Daryanto, S., Wang, S., Liu, Y., & Zhai, R. (2019). Effects of minimum soil disturbance practices on controlling water erosion in China's slope farmland: A meta-analysis. Land Degradation & Development, 30(6), 706–716. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.3258
Kervroëdan, L., Armand, R., Saunier, M., & Faucon, M.-P. (2019). Effects of plant traits and their divergence on runoff and sediment retention in herbaceous vegetation. Plant and Soil, 441(1–2), 511–524. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-019-04142-6
Klik, A., & Rosner, J. (2020). Long-term experience with conservation tillage practices in Austria: Impacts on soil erosion processes. Soil and Tillage Research, 203(104), 669. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2020.104669
Koricheva, J., Gurevitch, J., & Mengersen, K. (2013). Handbook of meta-analysis in ecology and evolution. Princeton University Press.
Kulkarni, R. U., Wang, C. L., & Bertozzi, C. R. (2022). Analyzing nested experimental designs—A user-friendly resampling method to determine experimental significance. PLoS Computational Biology, 18(5), e1010061. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1010061
Lahmar, R. (2010). Adoption of conservation agriculture in Europe. Land Use Policy, 27(1), 4–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2008.02.001
Lahmar, R., De Tourdonnet, S., Barz, P., Düring, R. A., Friedinghaus, M., Kolli, R., Kubat, J., Medvedev, P. V., Netland, J., & Picard, D. (2006). Prospect for conservation agriculture in northern and eastern European countries, lessons of Kassa. IX Congress of the European Society of Agronomy, 11, 77–88.
Laird, N. M., & Louis, T. A. (1987). Empirical Bayes confidence intervals based on bootstrap samples. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 82(399), 739–750. https://doi.org/10.2307/2288778
Landers, J. N., de Freitas, P. L., de Oliveira, M. C., da Silva Neto, S. P., Ralisch, R., & Kueneman, E. A. (2021). Next steps for conservation agriculture. Agronomy, 11(12), 2496. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11122496
Langhans, C., Diels, J., Clymans, W., Van den Putte, A., & Govers, G. (2019). Scale effects of runoff generation under reduced and conventional tillage. Catena, 176, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2018.12.031
Le Bayon, R.-C., & Binet, F. (2001). Earthworm surface casts affect soil erosion by runoff water and phosphorus transfer in a temperate maize crop. Pedobiologia, 45(5), 430–442. https://doi.org/10.1078/0031-4056-00097
Leys, A., Govers, G., Gillijns, K., & Poesen, J. (2007). Conservation tillage on loamy soils: Explaining the variability in interrill runoff and erosion reduction. European Journal of Soil Science, 58(6), 1425–1436. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.2007.00947.x
Maetens, W., Poesen, J., & Vanmaercke, M. (2012). How effective are soil conservation techniques in reducing plot runoff and soil loss in Europe and the Mediterranean? Earth-Science Reviews, 115(1), 21–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2012.08.003
Martin, P. (2009). De la trajectoire d'états des écosystèmes cultivés aux espaces territorialisés dynamiques: Contribution à la prise en compte de la dimension temporelle dans une agronomie des territoires. PhD thesis. Institut national polytechnique de Toulouse.
Mhazo, N., Chivenge, P., & Chaplot, V. (2016). Tillage impact on soil erosion by water: Discrepancies due to climate and soil characteristics. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 230, 231–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2016.04.033
Monnier, G. (1965). Action des matieres organiques sur la stabilite structurale du sol. Sols Africanis, 10, 5–42.
Morgan, R. P. C. (2005). Soil erosion and conservation (3rd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell.
Nakagawa, S., & Santos, E. S. A. (2012). Methodological issues and advances in biological meta-analysis. Evolutionary Ecology, 26(5), 1253–1274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10682-012-9555-5
Olivier, C., Goffart, J.-P., Baets, D., Xanthoulis, D., Fonder, N., Lognay, G., Barthélémy, J.-P., & Lebrun, P. (2014). Use of micro-dams in potato furrows to reduce erosion and runoff and minimise surface water contamination through pesticides. Communications in Agricultural and Applied Biological Sciences, 79(3), 513–524.
Ouedraogo, Y., Taonda, J. S., Sermé, I., Tychon, B., & Bielders, C. L. (2020). Factors driving cereal response to fertilizer microdosing in sub-Saharan Africa: A meta-analysis. Agronomy Journal, 112(4), 2431. https://doi.org/10.1002/agj2.20229
Palm, C., Blanco-Canqui, H., DeClerck, F., Gatere, L., & Grace, P. (2014). Conservation agriculture and ecosystem services: An overview. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 187, 87–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2013.10.010
Panagos, P., Borrelli, P., Meusburger, K., Alewell, C., Lugato, E., & Montanarella, L. (2015). Estimating the soil erosion cover-management factor at the European scale. Land Use Policy, 48, 38–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2015.05.021
Panagos, P., Borrelli, P., Poesen, J., Ballabio, C., Lugato, E., Meusburger, K., Montanarella, L., & Alewell, C. (2015). The new assessment of soil loss by water erosion in Europe. Environmental Science & Policy, 54, 438–447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2015.08.012
Philibert, A., Loyce, C., & Makowski, D. (2012). Assessment of the quality of meta-analysis in agronomy. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 148, 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2011.12.003
Quené, H., & van den Bergh, H. (2004). On multi-level modeling of data from repeated measures designs: A tutorial. Speech Communication, 43(1–2), 103–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.specom.2004.02.004
Rajbanshi, J., Das, S., & Paul, R. (2023). Quantification of the effects of conservation practices on surface runoff and soil erosion in croplands and their trade-off: A meta-analysis. Science of the Total Environment, 864(161), 15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.161015
Ranaivoson, L., Naudin, K., Ripoche, A., Affholder, F., Rabeharisoa, L., & Corbeels, M. (2017). Agro-ecological functions of crop residues under conservation agriculture. A Review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 37(4), 26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-017-0432-z
Rickson, R. J. (2014). Can control of soil erosion mitigate water pollution by sediments? Science of the Total Environment, 468–469, 1187–1197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.05.057
Ryken, N., Vanden Nest, T., Al-Barri, B., Blake, W., Taylor, A., Bodé, S., Ruysschaert, G., Boeckx, P., & Verdoodt, A. (2018). Soil erosion rates under different tillage practices in central Belgium: New perspectives from a combined approach of rainfall simulations and 7 Be measurements. Soil and Tillage Research, 179, 29–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2018.01.010
Sakrabani, R., & Hollis, J. (2018). Evaluating changes in soil organic matter with climate using CENTURY in England and Wales. Journal of Environmental Quality, 47(4), 695–703. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2017.08.0310
Saravanan, V., Berman, G. J., & Sober, S. J. (2020). Application of the hierarchical bootstrap to multi-level data in neuroscience. Neurons, Behavior, Data Analysis and Theory, 3(5), 7797. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2007.07797
Schlüter, S., Großmann, C., Diel, J., Wu, G.-M., Tischer, S., Deubel, A., & Rücknagel, J. (2018). Long-term effects of conventional and reduced tillage on soil structure, soil ecological and soil hydraulic properties. Geoderma, 332, 10–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2018.07.001
Shiu, C.-J., Liu, S. C., Fu, C., Dai, A., & Sun, Y. (2012). How much do precipitation extremes change in a warming climate?: CHANGES IN PRECIPITATION EXTREMES. Geophysical Research Letters, 39(17), 52762. https://doi.org/10.1029/2012GL052762
Shotwell, M. (2012). Resampling Hierarchically Structured Data Recursively. https://biostatmatt.com/archives/2125
Sittig, S., & Sur, R. (2023). Runoff mitigation on agricultural fields via micro-dams – Literature review and derivation of runoff curve number reductions. Environmental Research, 238(117), 128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2023.117128
Soane, B. D., Ball, B. C., Arvidsson, J., Basch, G., Moreno, F., & Roger-Estrade, J. (2012). No-till in northern, western and south-western Europe: A review of problems and opportunities for crop production and the environment. Soil and Tillage Research, 118, 66–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2011.10.015
Sojka, R. E., Westermann, D. T., Brown, M. J., & Meek, B. D. (1993). Zone-subsoiling effects on infiltration, runoff, erosion, and yields of furrow-irrigated potatoes. Soil and Tillage Research, 25(4), 351–368. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-1987(93)90033-L
Stoate, C., Boatman, N. D., Borralho, R. J., Carvalho, C. R., Snoo, G. R., & Eden, P. (2001). Ecological impacts of arable intensification in Europe. Journal of Environmental Management, 63(4), 337–365. https://doi.org/10.1006/jema.2001.0473
Stram, D. O. (1996). Meta-analysis of published data using a linear mixed-effects model. Biometrics, 52(2), 536. https://doi.org/10.2307/2532893
Takken, I., Govers, G., Jetten, V., Nachtergaele, J., Steegen, A., & Poesen, J. (2001). Effects of tillage on runoff and erosion patterns. Soil and Tillage Research, 61(1–2), 55–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-1987(01)00178-7
Tebrügge, F., & Düring, R.-A. (1999). Reducing tillage intensity—A review of results from a long-term study in Germany. Soil and Tillage Research, 53(1), 15–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-1987(99)00073-2
Thapa, R., Mirsky, S. B., & Tully, K. L. (2018). Cover crops reduce nitrate leaching in agroecosystems: A global meta-analysis. Journal of Environmental Quality, 47(6), 1400–1411. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2018.03.0107
Tisdall, J. M., & Oades, J. M. (1982). Organic matter and water-stable aggregates in soils. Journal of Soil Science, 33(2), 141–163. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.1982.tb01755.x
Van den Putte, A., Govers, G., Diels, J., Gillijns, K., & Demuzere, M. (2010). Assessing the effect of soil tillage on crop growth: A meta-regression analysis on European crop yields under conservation agriculture. European Journal of Agronomy, 33(3), 231–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eja.2010.05.008
van Dijk, P. M., van der Zijp, M., & Kwaad, F. J. P. M. (1996). Soil Erodibility parameters under various cropping Systems of Maize. Hydrological Processes, 10(8), 1061–1067. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1085(199608)10:8<1061::AID-HYP411>3.0.CO;2-V
Vejchar, D., Vacek, J., Hájek, D., Bradna, J., Kasal, P., & Svobodová, A. (2019). Reduction of surface runoff on sloped agricultural land in potato cultivation in de-stoned soil. Plant, Soil and Environment, 65(3), 118–124. https://doi.org/10.17221/736/2018-PSE
Verheijen, F. G. A., Jones, R. J. A., Rickson, R. J., & Smith, C. J. (2009). Tolerable versus actual soil erosion rates in Europe. Earth-Science Reviews, 94(1–4), 23–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2009.02.003
Viechtbauer, W. (2010). Conducting Meta-Analyses in R with the metafor Package. Journal of Statistical Software, 36(3), 1–48. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v036.i03
Wauters, E., Bielders, C., Poesen, J., Govers, G., & Mathijs, E. (2010). Adoption of soil conservation practices in Belgium: An examination of the theory of planned behaviour in the agri-environmental domain. Land Use Policy, 27(1), 2009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2009.02.009
Winteraeken, H. J., & Spaan, W. P. (2010). A new approach to soil erosion and runoff in south Limburg-The Netherlands. Land Degradation & Development, 21(4), 346–352. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.1009
Withers, P. J. A., Hodgkinson, R. A., Bates, A., & Withers, C. M. (2006). Some effects of tramlines on surface runoff, sediment and phosphorus mobilization on an erosion-prone soil. Soil Use and Management, 22(3), 245–255. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-2743.2006.00034.x
Wolka, K., Mulder, J., & Biazin, B. (2018). Effects of soil and water conservation techniques on crop yield, runoff and soil loss in sub-Saharan Africa: A review. Agricultural Water Management, 207, 67–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2018.05.016
Wynn, S., & Webb, E. (2022). Impact assessment of the loss of glyphosate within the EU: A literature review. Environmental Sciences Europe, 34(1), 91. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-022-00667-3
Xiong, M., Sun, R., & Chen, L. (2018). Effects of soil conservation techniques on water erosion control: A global analysis. Science of the Total Environment, 645, 753–760. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.124
Zhang, G., Chan, K., Oates, A., Heenan, D., & Huang, G. (2007). Relationship between soil structure and runoff/soil loss after 24 years of conservation tillage. Soil and Tillage Research, 92(122), 122–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2006.01.006
Zhou, X.-H., Brizendine, E. J., & Pritz, M. B. (1999). Methods for combining rates from several studies. Statistics in Medicine, 18(5), 557–566. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0258(19990315)18:5<557::AID-SIM53>3.0.CO;2-F
