Gold leaf tesserae: tracing the origins of gold using synchrotron-based techniques

[en] To gain insight into the possible origin of the gold used in the production of tesserae containing gold leaf less than 0.5 µm thick placed between two layers of glass, we propose a non-destructive synchrotron radiation (SR) XRF protocol based on sequential analysis under optimised analytical conditions. Using this protocol, trace element analysis is achieved with detection limits of 1–6 mg/kg. As Pt and Au have adjacent fluorescence energies, we tested the most challenging situation, when Pt is present in very low concentrations in gold. Data obtained by double-dispersive XRF (D2XRF) and µXRF for fourth–ninth-century mosaics decorating nine Eastern and Western religious buildings show that the Eastern and Western tesserae are made from different alloys. However, these alloys are identical to those used to make gold leaf for gilding, because plastic deformation requires the use of gold alloys with high ductility and malleability. Although trace element composition of gold used in the concerned period is only available for coins, by comparing the amounts of Pt contained in the tesserae and in the coins we show that Roman tesserae are made from Roman gold, as described in the documentary sources. We observe for the Byzantine period the use of a Byzantine gold and of gold supposedly from different stages of recycling, and we suggest the use of Umayyad and Abbasid gold for the production of Islamic tesserae. Graphical Abstract: [Figure not available: see fulltext.]

Disciplines :

Archaeology
Art & art history

Author, co-author :

Guerra, Maria F. ; UMR 8233, MONARIS, CNRS-Sorbonne Université, Paris, France

Neri, Elisabetta ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Unités de recherche interfacultaires > Art, Archéologie et Patrimoine (AAP)

Radtke, Martin ; Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung-und prüfung (BAM), Berlin, Germany

Language :

English

Title :

Gold leaf tesserae: tracing the origins of gold using synchrotron-based techniques

Publication date :

2023

Journal title :

European Physical Journal - Plus

eISSN :

2190-5444

Publisher :

Springer, Heidelberg, Germany

Volume :

138

Issue :

Peer reviewed :

Peer Reviewed verified by ORBi

Additional URL :

https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1140/epjp/s13360-022-03638-y.pdf

Funding text :

The authors are grateful to the Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie for the allocation of synchrotron radiation beamtime and to F. D’Andria (Università di Lecce), V. Blanc Bijon (CCJ, Université Aix-Marseille), S. Ristow, L. Van Wersch (CEA, Uliège), and Y. Lintz (Department of Islamic Art, musée du Louvre) for sampling the analysed tesserae.

Available on ORBi :

since 17 March 2024

Statistics

Number of views

17 (1 by ULiège)

Number of downloads

2 (0 by ULiège)

More statistics

Scopus citations^®

Scopus citations^®
without self-citations

OpenCitations

OpenAlex citations

publications

supporting

mentioning

contrasting

Smart Citations

Citing PublicationsSupportingMentioningContrasting

View Citations

See how this article has been cited at scite.ai

scite shows how a scientific paper has been cited by providing the context of the citation, a classification describing whether it supports, mentions, or contrasts the cited claim, and a label indicating in which section the citation was made.

Bibliography

L. James, Mosaics in the Medieval World (University Press, Cambridge, 2017)
M. Bartoli, F. Felici, P. Santopadre, M. Verità, in Bollettino icr 26, 211 (2015)
E.H. Swift, AJA. (1934). 10.2307/498933 DOI: 10.2307/498933
C.L. Connor, Saints and Spectacle (Oxford University Press, 2016)
G. Bustacchini, Gold Bull. (1973). 10.1007/BF03215187 DOI: 10.1007/BF03215187
B. Schellewald, ZfK. (2016). 10.1515/ZKG-2016-0035 DOI: 10.1515/ZKG-2016-0035
G. Hass, J. Opt. Soc. Am. (1955). 10.1364/JOSA.45.000945 DOI: 10.1364/JOSA.45.000945
R. Groth, W. Reichelt, Gold Bull. (1974). 10.1007/BF03215039 DOI: 10.1007/BF03215039
C. Bolgia, in New light on old glass. ed. by L. James, C. Entwistle (The British Museum Press, London, 2013), p.217
V. Ivanovici, in Colour and Light in Ancient and Medieval Art, ed. By C.N. Duckworth, A.E. Sassin (Routledge, London, 2017) p. 79
P. Mastoras, in Glass, wax and metal. ed. by I. Motsianos, K.S. Garnett (Archaeopress, Oxford, 2019), p.217
A.K.R. Choudhury, Principles of colour appearance and measurement 1 (Woodhead Publishing, 2014)
W.J. Adams, J.H. Elder, PLoS Comput. Biol. (2014). 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003576 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003576
T. Matsumoto, K. Fukuda, K. Uchikawa, Int. J. Affec. Eng. (2016). 10.5057/ijae.IJAE-D-16-00003 DOI: 10.5057/ijae.IJAE-D-16-00003
V. Honson, Q. Huynh-Thu, M. Arnison, D. Monaghan, Z.J. Isherwood, J. Kim, Front. Psychol. (2020). 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00485 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00485
M. Verità, Quader. Friul. di Archeologia. 16, 7 (2006)
M. Verità, P. Santopadre, J. Glass. Stud. 52, 11 (2010)
M. Verità, Stud. Conserv. (2000). 10.1179/sic.2000.45.s3.007 DOI: 10.1179/sic.2000.45.s3.007
M. Verità, in Conservation of the Last Judgment Mosaic. ed. by F. Piqué, D. Stulik (J. Paul Getty Trust, Los Angeles, 2004), p.123
A. Silvestri, S. Maltoni, C.L. Serra, J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep. (2022). 10.1016/j.jasrep.2022.103381 DOI: 10.1016/j.jasrep.2022.103381
Q. Wu, M. Döbeli, T. Lombardo, K. Schmidt-Ott, B. Watts, F. Nolting, D. Ganz, Herit. Sci. (2020). 10.1186/s40494-020-00456-2 DOI: 10.1186/s40494-020-00456-2
M.T. Wypyski, DOP. (2005). 10.2307/4128756 DOI: 10.2307/4128756
R. Arletti, C. Fiori, M. Vandini, Archaeometry (2010). 10.1111/j.1475-4754.2009.00504.x DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-4754.2009.00504.x
A. Silvestri, S. Tonietto, G. Molin, J. Archaeol. Sci. (2011). 10.1016/j.jas.2011.07.027 DOI: 10.1016/j.jas.2011.07.027
L. James, G.J. Leigh, N. Schibille, Antiq. J. (2013). 10.1017/S0003581513000255 DOI: 10.1017/S0003581513000255
E. Neri, I. Biron, M. Verità, Archaeol. Anthropol. Sci. (2018). 10.1007/s12520-017-0492-7 DOI: 10.1007/s12520-017-0492-7
L.W. Adlington, M. Ritter, N. Schibille, PLoS ONE (2020). 10.1371/journal.pone.023973210.1371/journal.pone.0239732 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.023973210.1371/journal.pone.0239732
N. Schibille, C. Boschetti, M.Á. Valero Tévar, E. Veron, A.J. de Juan, Minerals. 10(3), 272 (2020). 10.3390/min10030272 DOI: 10.3390/min10030272
K. Dark, J. Kostenec, Hagia Sophia in Context (Oxbow Books, Oxford, 2019)
N.B. Teteriatnikov, Mosaics of Hagia Sophia, Istanbul (Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C., 1998)
J. Sasaki, in Conservation and Presentation of Mosaics, ed. By J. M. Teutonico, L. Friedman, A. Ben Abed, R. Nardi (The Getty Conservation Institute, Los Angeles, 2017), p. 111.
A. Moropoulou, A. Bakolas, M. Karoglou, E.T. Delegou, K.C. Labropoulos, N.S. Katsiotis, J. Cult. Herit. (2013). 10.1016/j.culher.2013.01.006 DOI: 10.1016/j.culher.2013.01.006
A. Moropoulou, N. Zacharias, E.T. Delegou, B. Maróti, Z. Kasztovszky, Microchem. J. 125, 170–184 (2016). 10.1016/j.microc.2015.11.020 DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2015.11.020
N. Schibille, Islamic Glass in the Making (University Press, Leuven, 2022)
A. Stella, M. Verita, Mikrochim. Acta. (1994). 10.1007/BF01244574 DOI: 10.1007/BF01244574
P. Loukopoulou, A. Moropoulou, in New light on old glass. ed. by L. James, C. Entwistle (The British Museum Press, London, 2013), p.76
P. Loukopoulou, A. Moropoulou, in Nondestructive Evaluation and Monitoring Technologies, Documentation, Diagnosis and Preservation of Cultural Heritage. ed. by A. Osman, A. Moropoulou (Springer Cham, 2019), p.51
M. Hidaka, J. Miyata, Conservation of Monuments in the Mediterranean Basin, ed. By M. Koui, F. Zezza, D. Kouis (Springer Cham, 2018), p. 497
M. Verità, L. Lazzarini, E. Tesser, F. Antonelli, Archaeol. Anthropol. Sci. (2017). 10.1007/s12520-017-0559-5 DOI: 10.1007/s12520-017-0559-5
A. Conventi, E. Neri M. Verità, IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng. (2012) https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/32/1/012007
E. Neri, M. Verità, J. Archaeol. Sci. (2013). 10.1016/j.jas.2013.07.017 DOI: 10.1016/j.jas.2013.07.017
B. Neuray, C. Fontaine, H. Wouters, in Early Medieval Tesserae in Northwestern Europe. ed. by L. Van Wersch, L. Verslype, D. Strivay, F. Theuws (Habelt-Verlag, Bonn, 2019), p.110
D. Moro, G. Ulian, G. Valdrè, Measurement (2018). 10.1016/j.measurement.2018.07.025 DOI: 10.1016/j.measurement.2018.07.025
M.F. Guerra, NIM-B. (2004). 10.1016/j.nimb.2004.02.019 DOI: 10.1016/j.nimb.2004.02.019
M.F. Guerra, X-ray Spectrom. (2008). 10.1002/xrs.1013 DOI: 10.1002/xrs.1013
E. Neri, M. Verità, I. Biron, M.F. Guerra, J Archaeol Sci. (2016). 10.1016/j.jas.2016.05.003 DOI: 10.1016/j.jas.2016.05.003
M. Verità, L. Lazzarini, P. Santopadre, in The Restoration of the Nativity Church in Bethlehem. ed. by C. Alessandri (Taylor & Francis Group, London, 2020), p.189
Ph. Colomban, T. Calligaro, C. Vibert-Guigue, Q.L. Nguyen, H.G.M. Edwards, Archeo. Sci. (2005). 10.4000/archeosciences.424 DOI: 10.4000/archeosciences.424
M.A. Gómez-Morón, T. Palomar, L.C. Alves, P. Ortiz, M. Vilarigues, N. Schibille, J. Archaeol. Sci. 129, 105370 (2021). 10.1016/j.jas.2021.105370 DOI: 10.1016/j.jas.2021.105370
I. Tissot, M. Tissot, M. Manso, L.C. Alves, M.A. Barreiros, T. Marcelo, M.L. Carvalho, V. Corregidor, M.F. Guerra, NIM-B. (2013). 10.1016/j.nimb.2012.11.054 DOI: 10.1016/j.nimb.2012.11.054
T. Panhuysen, A. Kronz, K. Simon, L. Van Wersch, in Early Medieval Tesserae in Northwestern Europe. ed. by L. Van Wersch, L. Verslype, D. Strivay, F. Theuws (Habelt-Verlag, Bonn, 2019), p.96
A. Kronz, K. Simons, W. Giertz, S. Ristow, in METALLA S7 66 (2015)
I. Coutinho, T. Medici, R.J.C. Silva, B. Gratuze, H. Catarino, A. Lima, J Archaeol. Sci. Rep. (2016). 10.1016/j.jasrep.2016.02.010 DOI: 10.1016/j.jasrep.2016.02.010
M. Blet-Lemarquand, S. Nieto-Pelletier, B. Gratuze, in Metallurgy in Numismatics 6. ed. by K.A. Sheedy, G. Davis (The Royal Numismatic Society, London, 2020), p.195
M.F. Guerra, Phys. Sci. Rev. (2018). 10.1515/psr-2018-0015 DOI: 10.1515/psr-2018-0015
M.F. Guerra, Archaeometry (2021). 10.1111/arcm.12710 DOI: 10.1111/arcm.12710
M.F. Guerra, T. Calligaro, J. Archaeol. Sci. (2004). 10.1016/j.jas.2002.05.001 DOI: 10.1016/j.jas.2002.05.001
A. Gondonneau, M.F. Guerra, J.N. Barrandon, Rev. d’Archéométrie. (1996). 10.3406/arsci.1996.934 DOI: 10.3406/arsci.1996.934
M.F. Guerra, C.O. Sarthre, A. Gondonneau, J.-N. Barrandon, J. Archaeol. Sci. (1999). 10.1006/jasc.1999.0405 DOI: 10.1006/jasc.1999.0405
M.F. Guerra in Cultural Heritage Conservation and Environmental Impact Assessment by Non-Destructive Testing and Micro-Analysis, ed. By R. Van Griecken, K. Janssen (Balkema, London, 2005), p. 223
J. Poirier, Contribution à l'analyse de l'or antique. Application aux monnayages du monde méditerranéen du IIe au XIVe siècle (PhD, University of Orléans, 1983)
G.A. Green, D. Smythe, J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep. (2021). 10.1016/j.jasrep.2021.103128 DOI: 10.1016/j.jasrep.2021.103128
A. Gondonneau, M.F. Guerra, Archaeometry (2002). 10.1111/1475-4754.t01-1-00087 DOI: 10.1111/1475-4754.t01-1-00087
T. Jonson, M. Blet-Lemarquand, C. Morrisson, Rev Numis. (2014) http://www.persee.fr/doc/numi_0484-8942_2014_num_6_171_3263
C. Morrisson, J.N. Barrandon, J. Poirier, in L’or monnayée 2. ed. by C. Morrisson, C. Brenot, J.N. Barrandon, J.P. Callu, J. Poirier, R. Halleux (CNRS, Paris, 1985), p.113
M.F. Guerra, T. Calligaro, M. Radtke, I. Reiche, H. Riesemeier, NIM-B. (2005). 10.1016/j.nimb.2005.06.150 DOI: 10.1016/j.nimb.2005.06.150
M.F. Guerra, M. Radtke, I. Reiche, H. Riesemeier, E. Strub, NIM-B. (2008). 10.1016/j.nimb.2008.03.008 DOI: 10.1016/j.nimb.2008.03.008
M. Radtke, I. Reiche, U. Reinholz, H. Riesemeier, M.F. Guerra, Anal. Chem. (2013). 10.1021/ac3025416 DOI: 10.1021/ac3025416
M.F. Guerra, I. Tissot, J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep. (2022). 10.1016/j.jasrep.2022.103477 DOI: 10.1016/j.jasrep.2022.103477
R. Glaus, J. Koch, D. Günther, Anal. Chem. (2012). 10.1021/ac3008626 DOI: 10.1021/ac3008626
J. Flock, M. Haller, M. Haschke, X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy for Laboratory Applications (Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2021)
M.B. Fricker, D. Kutscher, B. Aeschlimann, J. Frommer, R. Dietiker, J. Bettmer, D. Günther, Int. J. Mass Spectrom. (2011). 10.1016/j.ijms.2011.01.008 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijms.2011.01.008
R. Kovacs, S. Schlosser, S. Staub, A. Schmiderer, E. Pernicka, D. Günther, J. Anal. At Spectrom. (2009). 10.1039/B819685K DOI: 10.1039/B819685K
M. Radtke, U. Reinholz, R. Gebhard, Archaeometry (2017). 10.1111/arcm.12294 DOI: 10.1111/arcm.12294
I. Tissot, L.G. Troalen, M. Manso, M. Ponting, M. Radtke, U. Reinholz, M.A. Barreiros, I. Shaw, M.L. Carvalho, M.F. Guerra, Spectrochim. ACTA B At Spectrosc. (2015). 10.1016/j.sab.2015.03.012 DOI: 10.1016/j.sab.2015.03.012
M. Radtke, A.G. Buzanich, U. Reinholz, H. Riesemeier, O. Scharf, P. Scholz, M.F. Guerra, Microchem. J. (2016). 10.1016/j.microc.2015.10.039 DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2015.10.039
O. Paris, C. Li, S. Siegel, G. Weseloh, F. Emmerling, H. Riesemeier, A. Erko, P. Fratzl, J. Appl. Cryst. (2007). 10.1107/S0021889806045444 DOI: 10.1107/S0021889806045444
E. Neri, M. Verità, in Il vetro in Italia, ed. By A. Coscarella (Ricerche 7, Università della Calabria, 2012), p. 13
E. Neri, V. Blanc Bijon 2016, in Estudios sobre mosaicos antiguos y medievales, ed. By L. Neira Jiménez (L'Erma di Bretschneider, Rome, 2016) p. 304
W. Giertz, S. Ristow, Antike Welt 5, 59 (2013)
S. Ristow, in Early Medieval Tesserae in Northwestern Europe. ed. by L. Van Wersch, L. Verslype, D. Strivay, F. Theuws (Habelt-Verlag, Bonn, 2019), p.124
D. Robcis, C. Thomas, M. Aucouturier, in Metal 2016. ed. by R. Menon, C. Chemello, A. Pandya (ICOM-CC, New Delhi, 2013), p.235
A. Oddy, Gold Bull. (1981). 10.1007/BF03214601 DOI: 10.1007/BF03214601
C. Zievie, BIFAO. (1975) https://www.ifao.egnet.net/bifao/75/15/
M.F. Guerra, M. Martinón-Torres, S. Quirke, Ancient Egyptian gold (McDonald Institute Monographs, Cambridge, in press)
M.H. Crawford, J.M. Reynolds, ZPE. (1979) https://www.jstor.org/stable/20181398
M.J. Groen-Vallinga, L.E. Tacoma, in Work, Labour, and Professions in the Roman World, ed. By K. Verboven, C. Laes (Brill, Leiden, Boston, 2017) p. 104
C. Hawkins, Roman artisans and the urban economy (University Press, Cambridge, 2016)
I. Ferris, The Dignity of Labour (Amberley Publishing, Gloucestershire, 2021)
M. Berthelot, Ch. Ém, Ruelle, Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs 3 (G. Steinheil, Paris, 1888)
H. Rackham, Pliny Natural History (Harvard Press and Heinemann, Cambridge, 1961)
G. Milanesi, C. Milanesi, Il libro dell’arte o Trattato della Pittura, Cennino Cennini (Le Monnier, Florence, 1859)
L. Belossi, A. Rossi, Le vite de’ piu eccellenti pittori, scultori, e architettori di Giorgio Vasari 1550 (Einaudi, Turin, 1986)
H. Burns, Mitt des Kunsthist. Inst. Florenz 23, 145 (1979)
P. Grierson, in Metallurgy in Numismatics 2. ed. by W.A. Oddy, M.M. Archibald (The Royal Numismatic Society, London, 1988), p.95
A.M. Stahl, Zecca (Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 2000)
C.M. Cipolla, Money in Sixteenth-Century Florence (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1989)
E.D. Nicholson, Gold Bull. (1979). 10.1007/BF03215119 DOI: 10.1007/BF03215119
M.G. Blaber, M.J. Ford, M.B. Cortie, in Gold, science and applications, ed. By C. Corti, R. Halliday (CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2010), p. 13
N.M. Ferreira-Alves, Revis. da Fac. de Letras. CTP 3, 85 (2004)
P. Hatchfield, R. Newman, in Gilded wood conservation and history. ed. by D. Bigelow, E. Cornu, G.J. Landrey, C. Van Horne (Sound View Press, Madison, 1991), p.27
E. Darque-Ceretti, E. Felder, M. Aucouturier, Revista. Matéria. (2011). 10.1590/S1517-70762011000100002 DOI: 10.1590/S1517-70762011000100002
A. Abdrabou, M. Abdallah, E. Nabil, Y. Matsuda, H.M. Kamal, Conservar Património. 30, 9–19 (2019). 10.14568/cp2017033 DOI: 10.14568/cp2017033
C. Fourdrin, S.P. Camagna, C. Pacheco, M. Radepont, Q. Lemasson, B. Moignard, L. Pichon, B. Bourgeois, V. Jeammet, Microchem. J. 126, 446–453 (2016)
A. Buccolieri, E. Degl’Innocenti, R. Cesareo, A. Castellano, G. Buccolieri, Measurement (2018). 10.1016/j.measurement.2018.05.063 DOI: 10.1016/j.measurement.2018.05.063
D. Lesigyarski, B. Zlateva, V. Lyubomirova, T. Stoyanov, I. Kuleff, Archeo Sci. (2015). 10.4000/archeosciences.4440 DOI: 10.4000/archeosciences.4440
P. Dandridge, in Gilded metals. ed. by T. Drayman-Weisser (Archetype, London, 2000), p.123
A.V. Zazhigalov, S.A. Balakin, I.V. Bacherikova, V.A. Zazhigalov, Chimie, physique et technologie des surfaces 1, 209 (2010)
J.V. García Marsilla, in Sources sérielles et prix au Moyen-Âge, ed. By C. Denjean (Toulouse, Presses du Midi, 2009), p. 253
M. Serrano y Sanz, in Revista de archivos, bibliotecas y museos 31, 433 (1914)
P. Meyers, Archaeometry (1969). 10.1111/j.1475-4754.1969.tb00630.x DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-4754.1969.tb00630.x
J.P. Callu, C. Brenot, J.N. Barrandon, J. Poirier, in L’or monnayée 2. ed. by C. Morrisson, C. Brenot, J.N. Barrandon, J.P. Callu, J. Poirier, R. Halleux (CNRS, Paris, 1985), p.81
W.A. Oddy, V.E.G. Meyer, in Excavations at Helgö X. ed. by B.E. Hovén (Almqvist & Wiksell, Stockholm, 1986), p.153
W.E. Metcalf, W.J. Fulco, AJN 7/8, 145 (1995–1996)
W. Williams, J. Flanagan, MRS Proc. (1997). 10.1557/PROC-462-155 DOI: 10.1557/PROC-462-155
M. Hall, F. Kovacs, Bull. Metals Museum. 30, 52 (1998)
M. Alram, M. Blet-Lemarquand, P.O.Skjærvø, in Des Indo-Grecs aux Sassanides, ed. By R. Gyselen (Res orientales XVII, 2007), p. 11
M.C. Vrij, The numismatic iconography of the period of Iconomachy (PhD thesis, University of Birmingham, 2016)
R. Naismith, Speculum (2014). 10.1017/S0038713413004533 DOI: 10.1017/S0038713413004533
M. McCormick, Origins of the European Economy (University Press, Cambridge, 2001)
C.S. Smith, J.G. Hawthorne, Trans. Am. Philos. (1974) https://www.jstor.org/stable/1006317
M.F. Hendy, ByzZ. (1972). 10.1515/byzs.1972.65.1.57 DOI: 10.1515/byzs.1972.65.1.57
C. Morrisson, in The Economic History of Byzantium, ed. By A.E. Laiou (Dumbarton Oaks, Washington D.C., 2002), p. 909
J. Banaji, Agrarian Change in Late Antiquity (University Press, Oxford, 2001)
W. Davies, Early Med. Eur. 2, 149–174 (2002). 10.1111/1468-0254.00106 DOI: 10.1111/1468-0254.00106
G. Taylor, ASQ 32, 6 (2010)
N. Oikonomidès, Fiscalité et exemption fiscale à Byzance (Institut de recherches byzantines, Athens, 1996)
ΑΗΜ Jones, The Later Roman Empire (Blackwell, Oxford, 1964)
J.E. Healy, Mining and Metallurgy in the Greek and Roman World (Thames and Hudson, London, 1978)
A.M. Hirt, Imperial Mines and Quarries in the Roman World (University Press, Oxford, 2010)
A. Orejas, F.J. Sánchez-Palencia, AJA. (2002). 10.2307/4126218 DOI: 10.2307/4126218
B. Pitarakis, Rev Numis. (1998) https://www.persee.fr/doc/numi_0484-8942_1998_num_6_153_2196
C. Meyer, JOM. (1997). 10.1007/BF02914661 DOI: 10.1007/BF02914661
S. Vryonis, Speculum (1962). 10.2307/2850595 DOI: 10.2307/2850595
K.P. Matschke, in The Economic History of Byzantium, ed. A.E. Laiou (Dumbarton Oaks, Washington D.C, 2002), p. 115
J.C. Edmondson, JRS. (1989). 10.2307/301182 DOI: 10.2307/301182
C. Pharr, The Theodosian Code and Novels (Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 1952)
B.W. Frier, The Codex of Justinian (University Press, Cambridge, 2016)
S. Moorhead, Handb. Greek Roman Coin. (2012). 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195305746.013.0033 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195305746.013.0033
K. Painter, Ant J. (1972). 10.1017/S0003581500020151 DOI: 10.1017/S0003581500020151
M.F. Hendy, Studies in the Byzantine Monetary Economy C. 300–1450 (University Press, Cambridge, 1985)
P. Grierson, M. Blackburn, Medieval European Coinage 1 (University Press, Cambridge, 1986)
F. Baratte, Lingots d’or et d’argent en rapport avec l’atelier de Sirmium Sirmium 8, 101 (1978)
L. Treadwell, Rev Numis. (2009) https://www.persee.fr/doc/numi_0484-8942_2009_num_6_165_2879
M.L. Bates, in North Africa from Antiquity to Islam. ed. by M. Horton, T. Wiedemann (University Press, Bristol, 1995), p.12
C. Foss, in Money, Power and Politics in Early Islamic Syria. ed. by J. Haldon (Burlington, Ashgate, 2010), p.75
S. O’Sullivan, Doc. Hist. Early Islam. World. (2015). 10.1163/9789004284340_006 DOI: 10.1163/9789004284340_006
G.W. Heck, in Money, Power and Politics in Early Islamic Syria. ed. by J. Haldon (Ashgate, Burlington, 2010), p.97
G. H. Qaddumi, A Medieval Islamic Book of Gifts and Treasures (PhD thesis, Harvard University, 1990)
S. Heidemann, Iran (1998). 10.2307/4299978 DOI: 10.2307/4299978
B. Leal, Muqarnas (2020). 10.1163/22118993-00371P03 DOI: 10.1163/22118993-00371P03
M.S. Gordon, C.F. Robinson, E.K. Rowson, M. Fishbein, The Works of Ibn Wāḍiḥ al-Yaʿqūbī 3 (Leiden, Boston, Brill, 2018)
H.A.R. Gibb, DOP 12, 219 (1958)
A. Cutler, DOP. (2001). 10.2307/1291821 DOI: 10.2307/1291821

Name	Provider / Domaine	Expiration	Description
JSESSIONID	Oracle Corporation www.uliege.be	Session	General purpose platform session cookie, used by sites written in JSP. Usually used to maintain an anonymous user session by the server.
CookieScriptConsent	CookieScript .uliege.be	1 year	This cookie is used by Cookie-Script.com service to remember visitor cookie consent preferences. It is necessary for Cookie-Script.com cookie banner to work properly.

Name	Provider / Domaine	Expiration	Description
_pk_id	InnoCraft Ltd .uliege.be	1 year	Used to store a few details about the user such as the unique visitor ID
_pk_ses	InnoCraft Ltd .uliege.be	30 minutes	Short lived cookies used to temporarily store data for the visit
_pk_ref	InnoCraft Ltd .uliege.be	6 months	Used to store the attribution information, the referrer initially used to visit the website