[en] Adipose tissue is the most variable carcass component and is traditionally being considered as a rather inert storage tissue for energy under the form of lipids. Most of the fat in chickens is located in adipose depots, which are all late maturing. At the cellular level, preadipocyte differentiation and proliferation is under the control of multiple hormones and transcription factors. The growth of fat tissue is initially due to hyperplasia followed by hypertrophy of the mature adipocytes. The amount of fat deposited is controlled by numerous hormones and depends on genetic and nutritional factors.Dietary fat is transported as portomicrons to the liver, which is also the primary site of the de novo lipogenesis. The newly formed very low density lipoproteins (VLDL) are distributed by the blood to the rest of the body. Lipoprotein lipase is a key enzyme in the further processing of these lipoproteins at the level of various tissues; The lipoprotein metabolism in laying hens is particular. All egg yolk lipids are synthesized mainly by the liver and transported to the ovary in special yolk-targeted VLDL (VLDLy) with an unusual apoprotein composition (only apoB and apoVLDLII). Recent research has however revealed that adipose tissue must now be regarded as a dynamic tissue, which secretes a considerable number of adipokines and hence plays a role in a multitude of bodily processes.
Disciplines :
Agriculture & agronomy
Author, co-author :
Everaert, Nadia ; Université de Liège - ULiège > TERRA Research Centre > Ingénierie des productions animales et nutrition
Decuypere, Eddy; Laboratory of Livestock Physiology, Department of Biosystems, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
Buyse, Johan; Laboratory of Livestock Physiology, Department of Biosystems, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
Adams, K.A., and Davis, J. (2001). Dietary protein concentration regulates the mRNA expression of chicken hepatic malic enzyme. J. Nutr. 131, 2269-2274.
Alleman, F., Michel, J., Chagneau, A.M., and Leclerq, B. (2000). The effects of dietary protein independent of essential amino acids on growth and body composition in genetically lean and fat chickens. Br. Poult. Sci. 41, 214-218.
Alvarenga, R.R., Zangeronimo, M.G., Pereira, L.J., Rodrigues, P.B., and Gomide, E.M. (2011). Lipoprotein metabolism in poultry. World’s Poult. Sci. J. 67, 431-440.
Assaf, S., Hazard, D., Pitel, F., Morisson, M., Alizadeh, M., Gondret, F., Diot, C., Vignal, A., Douaire, M., and Lagarrigue, S. (2003). Cloning of cDNA encoding the nuclear form of chicken sterol response element binding protein-2 (SREBP-2), chromosomal localization, and tissue expression of chicken CREBP-1 and -2 genes. Poult. Sci. 82, 54-61.
Baeza, E., and Le Bihan-Duval, E. (2013). Chicken lines divergent for low or high abdominal fat deposition: a relevant model to study the regulation of energy metabolism. Animal 7, 965- 973.
Bensadoun, A., and Rothfeld, A. (1972). The form of absorption of lipids in the chicken, Gallus domesticus. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 141, 814-817.
Bornelov, S., Seroussi, E., Yosefi, S., Benjamini, S., Miyara, S., Ruzal, M., Grabherr, M., Rafati, N., Molin, A.-M., Pendavis, K., Burgess, S.C., Andersson, L., Friedman-Einat, M. (2018). Comparative omics and feeding manipulations in chicken indicate a shift of the endocrine role of visceral fat towards reproduction. BMC Genomics 19, 295.
Bordas, A., Tixier-Boichard, M., and Merat, P. (1992). Direct and correlated responses to divergent selection for residual food intake in Rhode Island Red laying hens. Br. Poult. Sci 33, 741-754.
Bujo, H., Hermann, M., Kaderli, M.O., Jacobson, L., Sugawara, S., Nimpf, J., Yamamoto, T., and Schneider, W.J. (1994). Chicken oocyte growth is mediated by an eight ligand binding repeat member of the LDL receptor family. The EMBO J. 13, 5165-5175.
Butterwith, S.C. (1988). Avian adipose tissue: growth and metabolism. In “Leanness in Domestic Birds. Genetic, Metabolic and Hormonal Aspects” (B. Leclercq and C.C. Whitehead, Eds). pp. 203-222. INRA-Butterworths, London.
Buyse, J., Decuypere, E., Berghman, L., Kuhn, E.R., and Vandesande, F. (1992). The effect of dietary protein content on episodic growth hormone secretion and on heat production of male broilers. Br. Poult. Sci. 33, 1101-1109.
Buyse, J., and Decuypere, E. (1999). The role of the somatotrophic axis in the metabolism of the chicken. Domest. Anim. Endocrinol. 17, 245-255.
Buyse, J., Leenstra, F.R., Zeman, M., Rahimi, G., and Decuypere, E. (1999). A comparative study of different selection strategies to breed leaner meat-type poultry. Poult. Avian Biol. Rev. 10, 121-142.
Buyse, J., Darras, V.M., Kuhn, E.R., and Decuypere, E. (2001). Nutritional regulation of the somatotropic axis and intermediary metabolism in the chicken. In “Avian Endocrinology” (A. Dawson & C.M. Chaturvedi, Eds). pp 303-313. Narosa Publishing House, New Dehli.
Campbell, R.M., and Scanes, C.G. (1988). Pharmacological investigations on the lipolytic and antilipolytic effects of growth hormone (GH) in chicken adipose tissue in vitro: evidence for involvement of calcium and polyamines. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 188, 177-184.
Cartwright, A.L. (1991). Adipose cellularity in Gallus domesticus: investigations to control body composition in growing chickens. J. Nutr. 121, 1486-1497.
Chamruspollert, M., and Sell, J. (1999). Transfer of dietary conjugated linoleic acid to egg yolks of chickens. Poult. Sci. 78, 1138-1150.
Cogburn, L.A., Resnyk, C., Porter, T.E., Aggrey, S.E., Le Bihan-Duval, E., Duclos, M., and Simon, J. (2011). Transcriptional analysis of abdominal fat accretion in genetically fat and lean chickens: a new polygenic model of visceral obesity. The FASEB J. 25, 862.867.
Decuypere, E., and Buyse, J. (1988). Thyroid hormones, corticosterone, growth hormone and somatomedins in avian species: general effects and possible implications in fattening. In “Leanness in Domestic Birds. Genetic, Metabolic and Hormonal Aspects” (B. Leclercq and, C.C. Whitehead, Eds). pp. 295-312. INRA-Butterworths, London.
Diot, M., Reverchon, M., Rame, C. Froment, P., Brillard, J.-P., Briere, S., Leveque, G., Guillaume, D., Dupont, J. (2015). Expression of adiponectin, chemerin, and visfatin in plasma and different tissues during a laying season in turkeys. Reprod. Biol. Endocrin. 13, 81-94.
Donaldson, W.E. (1985). Lipogenesis and body fat in chicks: effects of calorie-protein ratio and dietary fat. Poult. Sci. 64, 1199-1204.
Du, M., and Ahn, D. (2002). Effect of dietary conjugated linoleid acid on the growth rate of live birds and on the abdominal fat content and quality of broiler meat. Poult. Sci. 81, 428- 433.
Dupont, J., Metayer-Coustard, S., Ji, B., Rame, C., Gespach, C., Voy, B., and Simon, J. (2012). Characterization of major elements of insulin signaling cascade in chicken adipose tissue: apparent insulin refractoriness. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 176, 86-93.
Evans, A.J. (1977). The growth of fat. In “ Growth and Poultry Meat Production” (K.N. Boorman and B.J. Wilson, Eds). pp 29-64. Br. Poult. Sci. Ltd, Edinburgh.
Friedman-Einat, M., and Seroussi, E. (2019). Avian leptin: Bird’s-eye view of the evolution of vertebrate energy-balance control.Trends Endocrin. Met. 30, 819-832.
Fruhbeck, G., and Gomez-Ambrosi, J. (2005). Adipose tissue. In “Encyclopedia of Human Nutrition (Second Edition)” (C. Benjamin, Ed.), pp. 1-14. Elsevier, Oxford.
Ghazanfari, S., Nobari, K., and Yamauchi, T. (2011). Adiponectin: a novel hormone in birds. Asian J. Anim. Vet. Adv. 6, 429-439.
Gondret, F., Ferre, P., and Dugail, I. (2001). ADD-1/SREBP-1 is a major determinant of tissue differential lipogenic capacity in mammalian and avian species. J. Lipid Res. 42, 106-113.
Griffin, H., Grant, G., and Perry, M. (1982). Hydrolysis of plasma triacylglycerol-rich lipoproteins from immature and laying hens (Gallus domesticus) by lipoprotein lipase in vitro. Biochem. J. 206, 647-654.
Griffin, H., and Hermier, D. (1988). Plasma lipoprotein metabolism and fattening in poultry. In “Leanness in Domestic Birds. Genetic, Metabolic and Hormonal Aspects” (B. Leclercq and C.C. Whitehead, Eds). pp. 175-202. INRA-Butterworths, London.
Guo, L., Sun, B., Shang, Z., Leng, L., Wang, Y., and Li, H. (2011). Comparison of adipose tissue cellularity in chicken lines divergently selected for fatness. Poult. Sci. 90, 2024-2034.
Harden, R.L., and Oscar, T.P. (1993). Thyroid hormone and growth hormone regulation of broiler adipocyte lipolysis. Poult. Sci. 72, 669-676.
Hausman, G.J., Barb, C.R., Fairchild, B.D., Gamble, J., and Lee-Rutherford, L. (2012). Expression of genes for interleukins, neuropeptides, growth hormone receptor, and leptin receptor in adipose tissue from growing broiler chickens. Domest. Anim. Endocrinol. 43, 260-263.
Havenstein, G.B., Ferket, P.R., Scheideler, S.E., and Larson, B.T. (1994a). Growth, livability, and feed conversion of 1991 vs 1957 broilers when fed “typical” 1957 and 1991 diets. Poult. Sci. 73, 1785-1794.
Havenstein, G.B., Ferket, P.R., Scheideler, S.E., and Larson, B.T. (1994b). Carcass composition and yield of 1991 vs 1957 broilers when fed “typical” 1957 and 1991 diets. Poult. Sci. 73, 1795-1804.
Havenstein, G.B., Ferket, P.R., and Qureshi, M.A. (2003). Growth, livability, and feed conversion of 1957 versus 2001 broilers when fed representative 1957 and 2001 diets. Poult. Sci. 82, 1500-1508.
Hendricks, G.L., Hadley, J.A., Krzysik-Walker, S.M., Prabhu, K.S., Vasilatos-Younken, R., and Ramachandran, R. (2009). Unique profile of chicken adiponectin, a predominantly heavy molecular weight multimer, and relationship to visceral adiposity. Endocrinol. 150, 3092-3100.
Hermier, D. (1997). Lipoprotein metabolism and fattening in poultry. J. Nutr.. 127, 805S-808S.
Hermier, D., Folgez, P., Williams, J., and Chapman, M.J. (1989). Alterations in plasma lipoproteins and apolipoproteins associated with oestrogen-induced hyperlipidemia in the laying hen. Eur. J. Biochem. 184, 109-118.
Higgins, S.E., Ellestad, L.E., Trakooljul, N., McCarthy, F., Saliba, J., Cogburn, L.A., and Porter, T.E. (2010). Transcriptional and pathway analysis in the hypothalamus of newly hatched chicks during fasting and delayed feeding. BMC Genomics 11, 162.
Hood, R.L. (1982). The cellular basis for growth of the abdominal fat pad in broiler-type chickens. Poult. Sci. 61, 117-121.
Hood, R.L., and Pym, R.A.E. (1982). Correlated responses for lipogenesis and adipose tissue cellularity in chickens selected for body weight gain, food consumption, and food conversion efficiency. Poult. Sci. 61, 122-127.
Jehl, F., Desert, C., Klopp, C., Brenet, M., Rau, A., Leroux, S., Boutin, M., Lagoutte, L., Muret, K., Blum, Y., Esquerre, D., Gourichon, D., Burlot, T., Collin, A., Pitel, F., Benani, A., Zerjal, T., Lagarrigue, S. (2019). Chicken adaptive response to low energy diet : main role of the hypothalamic lipid metabolism revealed a phenotypic and multi-tissue transcriptomic approach. BMC Genomics 20, 1033.
Jlali, M., Gigaud, V., Metayer-Coustard, S., Sellier, N., Tesseraud, S., Le Bihan-Duval, E., Berri, C. (2012). Modulation of glycogen and breast meat processing ability by nutrition in chickens : Effect of crude protein leel in 2 chicken genotypes. J. Anim. Sci. 90, 447-455.
Kokta, T.A., Dodson, M.V., Gertler, A., and Hill, R.A. (2004). Intercellular signaling between adipose tissue and muscle tissue. Domest. Anim. Endocrinol. 27, 303-331.
Krzysik-Walker, S.M., Ocon-Grove, O.M., Maddineni, S.R., Hendricks III, G.L., and Ramachandran, R. (2008). Is visfatin an adipokine or myokine? Evidence for greater visfatin expression in skeletal muscle than visceral fat in chickens. Endocrinol. 194, 1543-1550.
Kuo, L.E., Kitlinska, J.B., Tilan, J.U., Li, L., Baker, S.B., Johnson, M.D., Lee, E.W., Burnette, M.S., Fricke, S.T., Kvetnansky, R., Herzog, H., and Zukowska, Z. (2007). Neuropeptide Y acts directly in the periphery on fat tissue and mediates stress-induced obesity and metabolic syndrome. Nat. Med. 13, 803-811.
Leclercq, B. (1984). Adipose tissue metabolism and its control in birds. Poult. Sci. 63, 2044- 2054.
Leclercq, B. (1988). Genetic selection of meat-type chickens for high or low abdominal fat content. In “Leanness in Domestic Birds. Genetic, Metabolic and Hormonal Aspects” (B. Leclercq and C.C. Whitehead, Eds). pp. 25-40. INRA-Butterworths, London.
Lee, K., Shin, J., Latshaw, J.D., Suh, Y., and Serr, J. (2009). Cloning of adipose triglyceride lipase complementary deoxyribonucleic acid in poultry and expression of adipose triglyceride lipase during development of adipose in chickens. Poult. Sci. 88, 620-630.
Lesuisse, J., Li, C., Schallier, S., Climaco, W.L.S., Bautil, A., Everaert, N., Buyse, J. (2018). Multigenerational effects of a reduced balanced protein diet during the rearing and laying period of broiler breeders. 1. Performance of the F1 breeder generation. Poult. Sci. 97, 1651- 1665.
Leveille, G.A., Romsos, D.R., Yeh, Y.-Y., and O’Hea, E.K. (1975). Lipid biosynthesis in the chick. A consideration of site of synthesis, influence of diet and possible regulatory mechanisms. Poult. Sci. 54, 1075-1093.
Li, B.C., Zhang, Y.I., Chen, X.N., Shi, Q.Q., Fu, D.Z., Yin, Y.H., Zhang, Z.T., Gao, B., and Chen, G.H. (2011). Directional differentiation of chicken embryonic stem cells into osteoblasts, neuron-like cells and adipocytes. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 10, 7772-7779.
Li, J., Meng, F., Song, C., Wang, Y., and Leung, F.C. (2012). Characterization of chicken visfatin gene: cDNA cloning, tissue distribution, and promotor analysis. Poult. Sci. 91, 2885- 2894.
Li, Z., Wang, Y., Tian, X., Shang, P., Chen, H., Kang, X., Tian, Y. and Han, R. (2017). Characterization of the visfatin gene and its expression pattern and effect on 3T3-L1 adipocyte differentiation in chickens. Gene 632, 16-24.
Mann, K., Olsena, V., Maceka, B., Gnada, F., and Mann, M. (2008). Identification of new chicken egg proteins by mass spectrometry-based proteomic analysis. World’s Poult. Sci. J. 64, 209-218.
March, B.E., MacMillan, C., and Chu, S. (1984). Characteristics of adipose tissue growth in broiler-type chickens to 22 weeks of age and the effects of dietary protein and lipid. Poult. Sci. 63, 2207-2216.
Mellouk, N., Rame, C., Barbe, A., Grandhaye, J., Froment, P., Dupont, J. (2018a). Chicken is a useful model to investigate the role of adipokines in metabolic and reproductive diseases. Int. J. Endocrinol. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/4579734.
Mellouk, N., Rame, C., Marchand, M., Staub, C., Touze, J.-L., Venturi, E., Mercereand, F., Travel, A., Chartrin, P., Lecompte, F., Ma, L., Froment, P., and Dupont, J. (2018b). Effect of different levels of feed restriction and fish oil fatty acid supplementation on fat deposition by using different techniques, plasma levels and mRNA expression of several adipokines in broiler breeder hens. PLoS One 13, article e0191121.
Merkley, J.W., and Cartwright, A.L. (1989). Adipose tissue deposition and cellularity in cimaterol-treated female broilers. Poult. Sci. 68, 762-770.
Nikolay, B., PlieschnigSubik, J.A.D., Schneider, J.D., Schneider, W.J., Hermann, M., 2013. A novel estrogen-regulated avian apolipoprotein. Biochimie 95, 2445-2453.
Nir, I., Nitsan, Z., and Keren-Zvi, S. (1988). Fat deposition in birds. In “Leanness in Domestic Birds. Genetic, Metabolic and Hormonal Aspects” (B. Leclercq and C.C. Whitehead, Eds). pp. 141-174. INRA-Butterworths, London.
Nir, I., and Lin, H. (1982). The skeleton, an important site of lipogenesis in the chick. Ann. Nutr. Metab. 26, 100-105.
Palsson, H. (1955). Conformation and body composition. In ‘Progress in the physiology of Farm Animals” (J. Hammond, Ed) Vol 2, pp 430-452. Butterworths, London.
Qi, R., Feng, M., Tan, X., Gan, L., Yan, G., and Sun, C. (2013). FATP1 silence inhibits the differentiation and induces the apoptosis in chicken preadipocytes. Mol. Biol. Rep. 40, 2907- 2914.
Qi, R.L., Sun, C., Yan, J., Yang, H.L., Zhao, T.T., and Zhao, X. (2012). Effects of glucose on differentiation and fat metabolism of chicken preadipocytes. J. Anim. Vet. Adv. 11, 1223- 1229.
Ramiah, S.K., Meng, G.Y., Sheau Wei, T., Swee Keong, Y., and Ebrahimi, M. (2014). Dietary conjugated linoleic acid supplementation leads to downregulation of PPAR transcription in broiler chickens and reduction of adipocyte cellularity. PPAR. Res. 2014.
Ramsay, T.G., and Rosebrough, R.W. (2003). Hormonal regulation of postnatal chicken preadipocyte differentiation in vitro. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Part B 136, 245-253.
Resnyk, C.W., Chen, C., Huang, H., Wu, C.H., Simon, J., Le Bihan-Duval, E., Duclos, M.J., Cogburn, L.A. (2015). RNA-seq analysis of abdominal fat in genetically fat and lean chickens highlights a divergence in expression of genes controlling adiposity, hemostasis, and lipid metabolism. PLoS One 10, e0139549.
Resnyk, C.W., Carre, W., Wang, X., Porter, T.E., Simon, J., Le Bihan-Duval, E., Duclos, M.J., Aggrey, S.E., Cogburn, L.A. (2017). Transcriptional analysis of abdominal fat in chickens divergently selected on bodyweight at two ages reveals novel mechanisms controlling adiposity: validating visceral adipose tissue as a dynamic endocrine and metabolic organ. BMC Genomics 18, 626.
Richards, M.P., Poch, S.M., Coon, N.C., Rosebrough, R.W., Ashwell, C.M., and McMurtry, J.P. (2003). Feed restriction significantly alters lipogenic gene expression in broiler breeder chickens. J. Nutr 133, 707-715.
Rosebrough, R.W., Russell, B.A., and Richards, M.P. (2011). Further studies on short-term adaptations in the expression of lipogenic genes in broilers. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Part A 159, 1-6.
Saneyasu, T., Shiragaki, M., Nakanishi, K., Kamisoyama, H., and Honda, K. (2013). Effects of short term fasting on the expression of genes involved in lipid metabolism in chicks. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Part B 165, 114-118.
Sanz M. 1999. Higher lipid accumulation in broilers fed on saturated fats than in those fed on unsaturated fats. Br. Poult. Sci. 40, 95-101.
Sanz, M., Lopez-Bote, C.J., Menoyo, D., and Bautista, J.M. (2000). Abdominal fat deposition and fatty acid synthesis are lower and β-oxidation is higher in broiler chickens fed diets containing unsaturated rather than saturated fat. J. Nutr. 130, 3034-3037.
Sato, K., Fukao, K., Seki, Y., and Akiba, Y. (2004). Expression of the chicken peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ gene is influenced by aging, nutrition, and agonist administration. Poult. Sci. 83, 1342-1347.
Sato, K., Matsushita, K., Matsubara, Y., Kamada, T., and Akiba, Y. (2008). Adipose tissue fat accumulation is reduced by a single intraperitoneal injection of peroxisome proliferator- activated receptor gamma agonist when given to newly hatched chicks. Poult. Sci. 87, 2281- 2286.
Sato, K., Suzuki, K., and Akiba, Y. (2009). Characterization of chicken portomicron remnant and very low density lipoprotein remnant. J. Poult. Sci. 46, 35-39.
Scanes, C.G., Harvey, S., Marsh, J.A., and King, D.B. (1984). Hormones and growth in poultry. Poult. Sci. 63, 2062-2074.
Scanes, C.G., 2009. Perspectives on the endocrinology of poultry growth and metabolism. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 163, 24-32.
Schneider, W.J., Carroll, R., Severson, D.L., and Nimpf, J. (1990). Apolipoprotein VLDL-II inhibits lipolysis of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins in the laying hen. J. Lipid Res. 31, 507- 513.
Seroussi, E., Cinnamon, Y., Yosefi, S., Genin, O., Smith, J.G., Rafati, N., Bornelov, S., Andersson, L., Friedman-Einat, M., 2016. Identification of the long-sought leptin in chicken and duck: expression pattern of the highly GC-rich avian leptin fits an autocrine/paracrine rather than endocrine function. Endocrinology 157, 737-751.
Shipp, S.L., Cline, M.A., and Gilbert, E.R. (2016). Promotion of adipogenesis by neuropeptide Y during the later stages of chicken preadipocyte differentiation. Physiol. Rep. 4, doi 10.14814/phy2.13006.
Simon, J. (1989). Chicken as a useful species for the comprehension of insulin action. Crit. Rev. Poult. Biol. 2, 121-148.
Sintubin, P., Greene, E., Collin, A., Bordas, A., Zerjal, T., Tesseraud, S., Buyse, J., and Dridi, S. (2014). Expression profile of hypothalamic neuropeptides in chicken lines selected for high or low residual feed intake. Neuropeptides 48, 213-220.
Sonaiya, C.J. (1985). Abdominal fat weight and thickness as predictors of total body fat in broilers. Br. Poult. Sci. 26, 453-458.
Song, Z., Everaert, N., Wang, Y., Decuypere, E. and Buyse, J. (2013). The endocrine control of energy homeostasis in chicken. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 190, 112-117.
Speake, B.K., Noble, R.C., Murray, A.M.B., 1998. The utilization of yolk lipids by the chick embryo. Worlds Poul. Sci. J. 54, 319-334.
Swennen, Q., Decuypere, E., and Buyse, J. (2007a). Implications of dietary macronutrients for growth and metabolism in broiler chickens. World’s Poult. Sci. J. 63, 541-556.
Swennen, Q., Verhulst, P-J, Collin, A., Bordas, A., Decuypere, E., Verbeke, K., Vansant, G. and Buyse, J. (2007b). Further investigations on the role of diet-induced thermogenesis in the regulation of feed intake in chickens: comparison of R+ and R- cockerels. Poult. Sci. 86, 1960-1971.
Tahmoorespur, M., Ghazanfari, S., and Nobari, K. (2010). Evaluation of adiponectin gene expression in the abdominal adipose tissue of broiler chickens: feed restriction, dietary energy, and protein influences adiponectin messenger ribonucleic acid expression. Poult. Sci. 89, 2092-2100.
Tanaka, K., Ohtani, S., and Shigeno, K. (1983). Effect of increasing dietary energy on hepatic lipogenesis in growing chicks. I. Increasing energy by carbohydrate supplementation. Poult. Sci. 62, 445-451.
Temim, S., Chagneau, A.M., Guillaumin, S., Michel, J., Peresson, R., and Tesseraud, S. (2000). Does excess dietary protein improve growth performance and carcass characteristics in heat- exposed chickens? Poult. Sci. 79, 312-317.
Walzem, R.L., Davis, P.A., Hansen, R.J., 1994. Overfeeding increases very-low-density lipoprotein diameter and causes the appearance of a unique lipoprotein particle in association with failed yolk deposition. J. Lipid Res. 35, 1354-1356.
Tokushima, Y., Takahashi, K., Sato, K., Akiba, Y., 2005. Glucose uptake in vivo in skeletal muscles of insulin-injected chicks. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B 141, 43-48.
Walzem, R.L. (1996). Lipoproteins and the laying hen: form follows function. Poult. Avian Biol. Rev. 7, 31-64.
Wang, H.-B., Li, H., Wang, Q.-G., Zhang, X.-Y., Wang, S.-Z., Wang, Y.-X., and Wang, X.-P. (2007). Profiling of chicken adipose tissue gene expression by genome array. BMC Genomics 8, 193-206.
Wang, Y., Mu, Y., Li, H., Ding, N., Wang, Q., Wang, Y., Wang, S., and Wang, N. (2008). Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma gene: a key regulator of adipocyte differentiation in chickens. Poult. Sci. 87, 226-232.
Wang, J.W., Chen, W., Kang, X.T., Huang, Y.Q., Tian, Y.D., and Wang, Y.B. (2012a). Identification of differentially expressed genes induced by energy restriction using annealing control primer system from the liver and adipose tissues of broilers. Poultry Sci. 91, 972-978.
Wang, Y., Rao, K., Yuan, L., Everaert, N., Buyse, J., Grossmann R., and Zhao, R. (2012). Chicken FTO gene: tissue-specific expression, brain distribution, breed difference and effect of fasting. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Part A 163, 246-252.
Wang, Y., Zhu, Q., Yang, L., and Liu, Y.-P. (2012). Ontogenic expression pattern and genetic polymorphisms of fatty acid transport protein 4 (FABP4) gene in Chinese chicken populations. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 13, 6820-6835.
Wang, W. (2019). Research advances of adipocyte differentiation in poultry. World’s Poult. Sci. J. 75, 535-545.
Whitehead, C.C. (1988). Selection for leanness in broilers using plasma lipoprotein concentration as selection criterion. In “Leanness in Domestic Birds. Genetic, Metabolic and Hormonal Aspects” (B. Leclercq and C.C. Whitehead, Eds). pp. 41-58. INRA-Butterworths, London.
Yabuuchi, M., Bando, K., Hiramatsu, M., Takahashi, S., and Takeuchi, S. (2010). Local agouti signaling protein/melanocortin signaling system that possibly regulates lipid metabolism in adipose tissues of chickens. J. Poult. Sci. 47, 176-182.
Yen, C.F., Jiang, Y.N., Shen, T.F., Wong, I.M., Chen, C.C., Chen, K.C., Chang, W.C., Tsao, Y.K., and Ding, S.T. (2005). Cloning and expression of the genes associated with lipid metabolism in Tsaiya Ducks. Poult. Sci. 84, 67-74.
Zhang, Z.-W., Chen, Y.-C., Pei, W.-Y., and Li, H. (2012). Overexpression of chicken GATA2 or GATA3 suppressed the transcription of PPARɣ gene. Chin. J. Biochem. Mol. Biol. 28, 835-842.
Zhang, Z., Wang, H., Sun, Y., Li, H., and Wang, N. (2013). Klf7 modulates the differentiation and proliferation of chicken preadipocyte. Acta Biochem. Biophys. Sin. (Shanghai) 45, 280- 288.
Zhang, W., Bai, S., Liu, D., Cline, M.A., and Gilbert, E.R. (2015). Neuropeptide Y promotes adipogenesis in chicken adipose cells in vitro. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Pt. A Mol. Integr. Physoil. 181, 62-70.
Zhang, R., Lin, Y., Zhi, L., Liao, H., Zuo, L., Li, Z., and Xu, Y. (2017). Expression profiles and associations of adiponectin and adiponectin receptors with intramuscular fat in Tibetan chicken. Br. Poult. Sci. 58, 151-157.
Zhuo, Z., Lamont, S.J., Lee, W.R., Abasht, B. (2015). RNA-seq analysis of abdominal fat reveals differences between modern commercial broiler chickens with high and low feed efficiencies. PLoS One 10, e0135810.
Zimmerman, R., Strauss, J.G., Haemmerle, G., Schoiswohl, R., Birner-Gruenberger, R., Riederer, M., Lass, A., Neuberger, G., Eisenhaber, F., Hermetter, A., and Zechner, R., (2004). Fat mobilization in adipose tissue is promoted by adipose triglyceride lipase. Science 306, 1383-1386.
