Biotechnology; Developing countries; Food policy; Food safety; Sustainability impact; Environmental consequences; Food policies; Food-safety; Genetic modification technologies; Genetic modifications; Genetically modified crops; Higher yield; Meta-analysis; Social consequences; Sustainability impacts; Renewable Energy, Sustainability and the Environment; Building and Construction; Environmental Science (all); Strategy and Management; Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering; General Environmental Science
Abstract :
[en] Genetic modification has been used as a method to produce higher yields for consumption. However, the impact of genetic modification technology on agriculture in developing countries at the farm level often remains unclear. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the environmental, social and economic consequences of genetically modified (GM) crops at the farm level in developing countries. Using a meta-analysis on 40 empirical studies conveyed in developing countries, this article reports farmers’ reflections on the influences of GM crops in the framework of sustainability, including environmental, economic, and social impacts. Results indicate that genetic modification technology has been able to enhance the socio-economic and environmental efficiency of farmers in developing countries. This study showed genetic modification as a lifesaving technology in the short term, while in the long term, the sustainability of genetic modification production is reduced, according to farmers. Furthermore, this meta-analysis study showed that legal and administrative challenges and less access to relevant information are the main dilemmas of farmers dealing with GM crops in developing countries. Accordingly, the study concluded that conducting meta-analysis can provide useful information for policy makers who plan for the development of GM production.
Disciplines :
Agriculture & agronomy
Author, co-author :
Azadi, Hossein ; Université de Liège - ULiège > TERRA Research Centre > Modélisation et développement ; Department of Geography, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium ; Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Prague, Czech Republic ; Faculty of Environmental Science and Engineering, Babeș-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Taheri, Fatemeh; Department of Agricultural Economics, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
Movahhed Moghaddam, Saghi; Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
Siamian, Narges; Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Natural Resources and Environment, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
Goli, Imaneh; Department of Economics, Agricultural Extension and Education, Tehran Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
Pour, Maryam; Department of Economics and Rural Development, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liège, Gembloux, Belgium
Özgüven, Ahsen Işık; Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Technologies, Cyprus International University, Turkey
Janečková, Kristina; Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
Sklenička, Petr; Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
Witlox, Frank ; Department of Geography, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium ; Department of Geography, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia ; College of Civil Aviation, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, China
Language :
English
Title :
Genetically modified crops in developing countries: Savior or traitor?
Abid, M., Ashfaq, M., Abdul Quddus, M., Tahir, M.A., Fatima, N.A., Resource use efficiency analysis of small Bt cotton farmers in Punjab, Pakistan. J. Agric. Sci. 48:1 (2011), 75–81.
Adiyoga, W., Norton, G.W., Costs and benefits of Bt potato with resistance to potato Tuber Moth in Indonesia. Norton, G.W., Hautea, D.M., (eds.) Projected Impacts of Agricultural Biotechnologies for Fruits & Vegetables in the Philippines and Indonesia, 2009, ISAAA, the Philippines.
Ahmed, A.U., Hoddinott, J., Abedin, N., Hossain, N., The impacts of GM foods: results from a randomized controlled trial of Bt eggplant in Bangladesh. Am. J. Agric. Econ. 103:4 (2021), 1186–1206.
Akbari, M., Fozouni Ardekani, Z., Pino, G., Maleksaeidi, H., An extended model of Theory of Planned Behavior to investigate highly-educated iranian consumers' intentions towards consuming genetically modified foods. J. Clean. Prod. 227 (2019), 784–793.
Arshad, M., Suhail, A., Asghar, M., Tayyib, M., Hafeez, F., Factors influencing the adoption of Bt cotton in the Punjab, Pakistan. J. Agric. Soc. Sci. 3:4 (2007), 121–124.
Arshad, M., Khan, R.R., Aslam, A., Akbar, W., Transgenic Bt cotton: effects on target and non-target insect diversity. Past, present and future trends in cotton breeding, 155, 2018.
Ayyildiz, M., Erdal, G., The relationship between carbon dioxide emission and crop and livestock production indexes: a dynamic common correlated effects approach. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 28:1 (2021), 597–610.
Azadi, H., De Jong, S., Derudder, B., De Maeyer, P., Witlox, F., Bitter sweet: how sustainable is bio-ethanol production in Brazil?. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 16 (2012), 3599–3603.
Babar, U., Nawaz, M.A., Arshad, U., Azhar, M.T., Atif, R.M., Golokhvast, K.S., et al. Transgenic crops for the agricultural improvement in Pakistan: a perspective of environmental stresses and the current status of genetically modified crops. GM Crops Food 11:1 (2020), 1–29.
Badghan, F., Namdar, R., Valizadeh, N., Challenges and opportunities of transgenic agricultural products in Iran: convergence of perspectives using Delphi technique. Agric. Food Secur. 9:1 (2020), 1–13.
Baranski, R., Klimek-Chodacka, M., Lukasiewicz, A., Approved genetically modified (GM) horticultural plants: a 25-year perspective. Folia Horticulturae 31:1 (2019), 3–49.
Barragán-Ocaña, A., Reyes-Ruiz, G., Olmos-Peña, S., et al. Transgenic crops: trends and dynamics in the world and in Latin America. Transgenic Res. 28 (2019), 391–399, 10.1007/s11248-019-00123-8.
Basu, S., Omotubora, A., Beeson, M., et al. Legal framework for small autonomous agricultural robots. AI Soc. 35 (2020), 113–134, 10.1007/s00146-018-0846-4.
Bennett, R., Kambhampati, U., Morse, S., Ismael, Y., Farm‐level economic performance of genetically modified cotton in Maharashtra, India. Appl. Econ. Perspect. Pol. 28:1 (2006), 59–71.
Borlaug, N. (2002). Why India Needs Transgenic Crops'. A letter from Norman Borlaug to MS Swaminathan and others, Business Standard, April, 12.
Beyers, L., Thirtle, C., Can GM-technologies help African smallholders? The impact of Bt cotton in the makhathini flats of KwaZulu-natal. 25th International Conference of Agricultural Economists, Durban, South Africa, August. 16-22), 2003.
Brookes, G., Barfoot, P., Environmental impacts of genetically modified (GM) crop use 1996–2013: Impacts on pesticide use and carbon emissions. GM Crops Food 6:2 (2015), 103–133.
Brookes, G., Barfoot, P., Global income and production impacts of using GM crop technology 1996–2014. GM Crops Food 7:1 (2016), 38–77.
Brookes, G., Barfoot, P., Environmental impacts of genetically modified (GM) crop use 1996–2015: impacts on pesticide use and carbon emissions. GM Crops Food 8:2 (2017), 117–147.
Brookes, G., Barfoot, P., GM Crops: Global Socio-Economic and Environmental Impacts 1996-2016. 2018, PG Economics Ltd, UK.
Brookes, G., Baroot, P., GM Crops: Global Socio-Economic and Environmental Impacts 1996-2010. 2012, PG Economics Ltd, UK.
Brookes, G., Barfoot, P., GM crop technology use 1996-2018: farm income and production impacts. GM Crops Food 11:4 (2020), 242–261.
Cartwright, A., What Are Arguments over GM Crops All about? Analyzing Stakeholder Perspectives on GM Papaya in Hawaii. 2020.
Catacora-Vargas, G., Binimelis, R., Myhr, A.I., Wynne, B., Socio-economic research on genetically modified crops: a study of the literature. Agric. Hum. Val. 35:2 (2018), 489–513.
Carzoli, A.K., Aboobucker, S.I., Sandall, L.L., Lübberstedt, T.T., Suza, W.P., Risks and opportunities of GM crops: Bt maize example. Global Food Secur. 19 (2018), 84–91.
Catacora-Vargas, G., Binimelis, R., Myhr, A.I., et al. Socio-economic research on genetically modified crops: a study of the literature. Agric. Hum. Val. 35 (2018), 489–513, 10.1007/s10460-017-9842-4.
Challa, S., Neelapu, N.R.R., Dutta, T., Mishra, M.R., Involvement of policymakers, public acceptance, and commercialization of nutritionally enhanced and genetically modified rice. Roychoudhury, A., (eds.) Rice Research for Quality Improvement: Genomics and Genetic Engineering, 2020, Springer, Singapore, 10.1007/978-981-15-5337-0_34.
Ciarli, T., Ràfols, I., The relation between research priorities and societal demands: the case of rice. Res. Pol. 48:4 (2019), 949–967.
Chong, M., Prospects of transgenic food crops in India. http://www.absp2.cornell.edu/resources/reports/documents/chong_report.pdf, 2010.
Chopra, P., Kamma, A., Engineering life through synthetic biology. Silico Biol. l6 (2006), 401–410.
Choudhary, B., Gaur, K., Adoption and Impact of Bt Cotton in India, 2000 to 2010. 2011, ISAAA Biotech information Centre, New Delhi, India.
Diiro, G.M., Fisher, M., Kassie, M., Muriithi, B.W., Muricho, G., How does adoption of labor saving agricultural technologies affect intrahousehold resource allocations? The case of push-pull technology in Western Kenya. Food Pol., 102, 2021, 102114.
Fan, X., Muringai, V., Effect of Information on Consumer Acceptance of Genetically Modified Potatoes in Canada. 2018.
FAO. Biotechnology (GM food). Food Safety and Quality Unit, 2019 [online]. Rome. [Cited 30 September 2019] http://www.fao.org/food/food-safety-quality/a-z-index/Biotechnology/en/.
FAO. FAO Statistical Year Book World Food Agriculture, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome. 2012.
FAO. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. 2018, Statistics of farming production, Maize and sorghum Available in http://www.fao.org/faostat/En/#data/QC (consultedJuly18,2018).
Finger, R., Benni, N.E., Kaphengst, T., Evans, C., Herbert, S., Lehmann, B., Stupak, N., A meta-analysis on farm-level costs and benefits of GM Crops. Sustain. Times 3 (2011), 743–762.
Francisco, S.R., Costs and benefits of Bt eggplant with resistance to fruit and shoot borer in the Philippines. Norton, G.W., Hautea, D.M., (eds.) Projected Impacts of Agricultural Biotechnologies for Fruits & Vegetables in the Philippines and Indonesia, 2009, ISAAA, the Philippines.
Francisco, S.R., Maupin, J., Norton, G.W., Value of environmental benefits of Bt eggplant in the Philippines. Norton, G.W., Hautea, D.M., (eds.) Projected Impacts of Agricultural Biotechnologies for Fruits & Vegetables in the Philippines and Indonesia, 2009, ISAAA, the Philippines.
Friedrichs, S., Takasu, Y., Kearns, P., et al. Meeting report of the OECD conference on “genome editing: applications in agriculture—implications for health, environment and regulation”. Transgenic Res. 28 (2019), 419–463, 10.1007/s11248-019-00154-1.
Fischer, K., Ekener-Petersen, E., Rydhmer, L., Björnberg, K.E., Social impacts of GM crops in agriculture: a systematic literature review. Sustainability 7:7 (2015), 8598–8620.
Goldberg, N., Nachshon, U., Argaman, E., Ben-Hur, M., Short term effects of livestock manures on soil structure stability, runoff and soil erosion in semi-arid soils under simulated rainfall. Geosciences, 10, 2020, 213.
Gómez-Barbero, M., Rodríguez-Cerezo, E., Economic Impact of Dominant GM Crops Worldwide: a Review. 2006, European Communities, Spain.
Gouse, M., Pray, C.E., Kirsten, J., Schimmelpfennig, D., A GM subsistence crop in Africa: the case of Bt white maize in South Africa. Int. J. Biotechnol. 7 (2005), 84–94.
Gouse, M., Kirsten, J.F., Jenkins, L., BT cotton in South Africa: adoption and the impact on farm incomes amongst small-scale and large scale farmers. Agrekon 42:1 (2003), 15–28.
Gruère, G., Bouët, A., Mevel, S., Genetically modified food and international trade: the case of India, Bangladesh, Indonesia and the Philippines. IFPRI Discussion Paper 00740, Washington, DC. Int. Food Policy Res. Inst., 2007 http://www.ifpri.org/pubs/dp/ifpridp00740.asp.
Han, P., Velasco-Hernández, M.C., Ramirez-Romero, R., et al. Behavioral effects of insect-resistant genetically modified crops on phytophagous and beneficial arthropods: a review. J. Pest. Sci. 89 (2016), 859–883, 10.1007/s10340-016-0791-2.
Hess, S., Lagerkvist, C.J., Redekop, W., Pakseresht, A., Consumers' evaluation of biotechnologically modified food products:new evidence from a meta-survey. Eur. Rev. Agric. Econ. 43:5 (2016), 703–736.
Hosmath, J.A., Patil, V.C., Palled, Y.B., Malligawad, L.H., Patil, S.S., Alagawadi, A.R., Vastrad, A.S., A survey analysis on advantages and constraints of Bt cotton cultivation in northern Karnataka. J. Agric. Sci. 25:1 (2012), 140–141.
Huang, J., Wang, X., Dang, H., Impacts of and attitudes toward GM technology in China: challenges, policy and research implications. China agricultural economic review, 2017.
Huang, J., Hu, R., Pray, C., Qiao, F., Rozelle, S., Biotechnology as an alternative to chemical pesticides: a case study of Bt cotton in China. J. Agric. Econ. 29 (2003), 55–67.
ISAAA. Global status of commercialized biotech/GM Crops in 2019. ISAAA Brief No, 55, 2019, ISAAA, Ithaca, NY, USA.
ISAAA (2017). Pocket K No. 42: Stacked traits in biotech crops. Available from: http://isaaa.org/resources/publications/pocketk/42/default.asp.
Islam, R., Parvin, A., Billah, M.M., Islam, M., Imran, M.A.S., Sarker, R.K., et al. Assessment of the effects of genetically modified (GM) foods: a brief study on health and environmental concerns. J. Mater. Environ. Sci. 11:10 (2020), 1676–1688.
Ismael, Y., Bennett, R., Morse, S., Biotechnology in Africa: the adoption and economic impacts of Bt cotton in the Makhathini flats, republic of South Africa. Paper Presented for Africa Bio Conference: Biotechnology Conference for Sub-saharan Africa, 26th -27th September, 2001.
Ismael, Y., Bennett, R., Morse, S., Benefits from Bt cotton use by smallholder farmers in South Africa. AgBioforum 5:1 (2002), 1–5.
Jansing, J., Schiermeyer, A., Schillberg, S., Fischer, R., Bortesi, L., Genome editing in agriculture: technical and practical considerations. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20, 2019, 2888.
Kariyawasam, K., Legal liability, intellectual property and genetically modified crops: their impact on world agriculture. Pac. Rim. Pol'y. J. 19:3 (2010), 459–485.
Kathage, J., Qaim, M., Economic impacts and impact dynamics of Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) cotton in India. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 109:29 (2012), 11652–11656.
Keshani, P., Sharifi, M.H., Heydari, M.R., Joulaei, H., The effect of genetically modified food on infertility indices: a systematic review study. Sci. World J., 2020, 2020.
Klümper, W., Qaim, M., A meta-analysis of the impacts of genetically modified crops. PLoS One, 9(11), 2014, e111629.
Kolady, D., Lesser, W., Is it feasible to provide genetically modified crops to small farmers on preferential terms? An ex ante analysis of Bt Eggplant in India. Presented at the American Agricultural Economic Association Annual Meeting, Long Beach, California, and July. (23-26), 2006.
Kouser, S., Qaim, M., Impact of Bt cotton on pesticide poisoning in smallholder agriculture: a panel data analysis. Ecol. Econ. 70 (2011), 2105–2113.
Krasnikova, E.S., Karmeeva, Y.S., Aledo, M.M., Krasnikov, A.V., Kalganov, S.A., Hemato-biochemical status of laboratory mice with a GM corn based diet. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, vol. 315, 2019, IOP Publishing, 042005 No. 4.
Krishna, V.V., Qaim, M., Potential impacts of Bt eggplant on economic surplus and farmers' health in India. Presented at the 2007 AAEA, WAEA & CAES Joint Annual Meeting, Oregon Convention Center, July 29-August 1, Portland, 2007.
Krishna, V., Zilberman, D., Qaim, M., GM technology adoption, production risk and on-farm varietal diversity. Presented at the Agricultural & Applied Economics Association's 2009 AAEA & ACCI Joint Annual Meeting, Milwaukee, WI, July. (26-28), 2009.
Kumar, K., Gambhir, G., Dass, A., Tripathi, A.K., Singh, A., Jha, A.K., et al. Genetically modified crops: current status and future prospects. Planta 251:4 (2020), 1–27.
Kumar, A., Synthetic biology and future production of biofuels and high–value products. Kumar, A., Yau, Y.Y., Ogita, S., Scheibe, R., (eds.) Climate Change, Photosynthesis and Advanced Biofuels, 2020, Springer, Singapore, 10.1007/978-981-15-5228-1_11.
Kvakkestad, V., Vatn, A., Governing uncertain and unknown effects of genetically modified crops. Ecol. Econ. 70:3 (2011), 524–532.
Lee, D., Park, S., Seong, S., et al. Production of insect-resistant transgenic rice plants for use in practical agriculture. Plant. Biotechnol. Rep. 10 (2016), 391–401, 10.1007/s11816-016-0410-y.
Liu, E.M., Time to Change what to Sow: Risk Preferences and Technology Adoption Decisions of Cotton Farmers in China. Working Paper 526. 2008, Princeton University, Department of Economics, Industrial Relations Section, Princeton, NJ.
Liu, A., Environmental Risks That May Be Caused by GM Crops. Regulating Genetically Modified Crops in View of Environmental Risks, 2022, Springer, Singapore, 1–12.
Maharana, L., Dash, P.P., Krishnakumar, K.N., A comparative assessment of BT and non-BT cotton cultivation on farmers' livelihood in Andhra Pradesh. Biosci. Res. 2:2 (2011), 99–111.
Malkarnekar, A., Waibel, H., Pemsl, D., Why Some Indian Cotton Farmers Do Not Adopt Bt Cotton, Poster Presented at Tropentag Conference. 2005, University of Hohenheim, 11–13 October.
Martinez-Ribaya, B., Areal, F.J., Is there an opportunity for product differentiation between GM and non-GM soya-based products in Argentina?. Food Control, 109, 2020, 106895.
Mehta, N., Technical efficiency and reduction in input costs in agriculture: case of genetically modified cotton. Agric. Econ. Res. Rev. 32:1 (2019), 105–116.
Meemken, E.-M., Do smallholder farmers benefit from sustainability standards? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Global Food Secur., 26, 2020, 100373.
Mithra, S.A., Kulkarni, K., Srinivasan, R., Plant promoters: characterization and applications in transgenic technology. Plant Biotechnology: Principles and Applications, 2017, Springer, Singapore, 117–172.
Morse, S., Bennett, R., Ismael, Y., Inequality and GM crops: A case study of Bt cotton in India. AgBioForum 10:1 (2007), 44–50.
Mushunje, A., Muchaonyerwa, P., Mandikiana, B.W., Taruvinga, A., Smallholder farmers' perceptions on Bt maize and their relative influence towards its adoption: the case of Mqanduli communal area South Africa. Afr. J. Agric. Res. 6:27 (2011), 5918–5923.
Mutuc, M.E.M., Pan, S., Rejesus, R.M., Yorobe, J.M., Farm level impacts of Bt corn adoption in a developing country: evidence from the Philippines. Presented at the American Agricultural Economics Association Annual Meeting, Portland, July 26 – August 1, 2007.
Naik, S.B., A Study on Knowledge and Adoption of Bacillus Thuringiensis (Bt) Cotton Practices Followed by Farmers in Haveri District, Karnataka. Msc. Thesis in Agricultural Extension and Education, department of agricultural extension education college of agriculture, dharwad university of agricultural sciences, Dharwad, 2009.
Narayanamoorthy, A., Kalamkar, S.S., Is Bt cotton cultivation economically viable for Indian farmers? An empirical analysis. Econ. Polit. Wkly. 41:26 (2006), 2716–2724.
Nazli, H., Orden, D., Sarker, R., Meilke, K., Bt cotton adoption and wellbeing of farmers in Pakistan. The Triennial International Association of Agricultural Economists Conference, Brazil, August. (18-24), 2012.
Pandey, V., Krishnan, V., Basak, N., et al. Molecular modeling and in silico characterization of GmABCC5: a phytate transporter and potential target for low-phytate crops. 3 Biotech, 8, 2018, 54, 10.1007/s13205-017-1053-6.
Paredes, C., Martin, M.A., Adoption of transgenic crops by smallholder farmers in Entre Rios, Argentina. Presented at the 2007 AAEA Annual Meeting, July 29, August 1, Portland, 2007.
Pray, C.E., Ma, D., Huang, J., Qiao, F., Impact of Bt cotton in China. World Dev. 29:5 (2001), 813–825.
Pino, G., Amatulli, C., De Angelis, M., M.Peluso, M., The influence of corporate social responsibility on consumers' attitudes and intentions toward genetically modified foods: evidence from Italy. J. Clean. Prod. 112:4 (2016), 2861–2869, 10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.10.008.
Popek, S., Halagarda, M., Genetically modified foods: consumer awareness, opinions and attitudes in selected EU countries. Int. J. Consum. Stud. 41 (2017), 325–332.
Qaim, M., De Janvry, A., Genetically modified crops, corporate pricing strategies, and farmers' adoption: the case of Bt cotton in Argentina. Am. J. Agric. Econ. 85 (2003), 814–828.
Qaim, M., Traxler, G., Roundup Ready soybeans in Argentina: farm level and aggregate welfare effects. Agric. Econ. 32:1 (2005), 73–86.
Qaim, M., Zilberman, D., Yield Effects of Genetically Modified Crops in Developing Countries Sci, vol. 299, 2003, 900–902.
Raman, R., The impact of Genetically Modified (GM) crops in modern agriculture: a review. GM Crops Food 8:4 (2017), 195–208.
Raoufi, R.S., Soufizadeh, S., Simulation of the impacts of climate change on phenology, growth, and yield of various rice genotypes in humid sub-tropical environments using AquaCrop-Rice. Int. J. Biometeorol. 64 (2020), 1657–1673, 10.1007/s00484-020-01946-5.
Raybould, A., Hypothesis-led ecological risk assessment of GM crops to support decision-making about product use. GMOs, 2020, Springer, Cham, 305–342.
Ricroch, A., Global developments of genome editing in agriculture. Transgenic Res. 28 (2019), 45–52, 10.1007/s11248-019-00133-6.
Russell, A.W., GMOs and their contexts: a comparison of potential and actual performance of GM crops in a local agricultural setting. Geoforum 39 (2008), 213–222.
Sadashivappa, P., Qaim, M., Effects of Bt cotton in India during the first five years of adoption. Presented at the International Association of Agricultural Economists' 2009 Conference, Beijing, China, and August. (16-22), 2009.
Sharry, S., Briones, M.V., Genetically modified organism's (GMO's) impact and current status in Latin America: technological sovereignty or dependence?. Chong, P., Newman, D., Steinmacher, D., (eds.) Agricultural, Forestry and Bioindustry Biotechnology and Biodiscovery, 2020, Springer, Cham, 10.1007/978-3-030-51358-0_1.
Schnurr, M.A., Dowd-Uribe, B., Anticipating farmer outcomes of three genetically modified staple crops in sub-Saharan Africa: insights from farming systems research. J. Rural Stud., 2021.
Sebastian, S., Thomas, D.P., Brimblecombe, J., Majoni, V., Cunningham, F.C., Factors impacting on development and implementation of training programs for health professionals to deliver brief interventions, with a focus on programs developed for indigenous clients: a literature review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Publ. Health, 17, 2020, 1094.
Stone, G.D., Field versus farm in Warangal: Bt Cotton, higher yields, and larger questions. World Dev., 2010, 10.1016/j.worlddev.2010.09.008.
Smyth, S.J., Canadian regulatory perspectives on genome engineered crops. GM Crops Food Biot. Agri. Food Chain., 2017, 35–43.
Tallapragada, M., Hardy, B.W., Lybrand, E., Hallman, W.K., Impact of abstract versus concrete conceptualization of genetic modification (GM) technology on public perceptions. Risk Anal. 41:6 (2021), 976–991.
Todua, N., Gogitidze, T., Georgian farmers' attitudes towards genetically modified crops. Econ. World 5:4 (2017), 362–369.
Tiwari, A., Plant breeding and Indian agriculture. Commercial Status of Plant Breeding in India, 2020, Springer, Singapore, 10.1007/978-981-15-1906-2_1.
Trapero, C., Wilson, I.W., Stiller, W.N., Wilson, L.J., Enhancing integrated pest management in GM cotton systems using host plant resistance. Front. Plant Sci., 7, 2016, 500.
Turnbull, C., Lillemo, M., Hvoslef-Eide, T.A., Global regulation of genetically modified crops amid the gene edited crop boom–a review. Front. Plant Sci., 12, 2021, 258.
Uddin, M., Impact of intellectual property rights over food security in developing and least developed countries. Mahatab Uddin. J. of Judicial Administration Train. Institute. 20 (2021), 191–203.
Viljoen, C., Chetty, L., A case study of GM maize gene flow in South Africa. Environ. Sci. Eur. 23 (2011), 8–15.
Viswanathan, P.K., Lalitha, N., GM technology and sustainable agriculture future: empirical evidences from Bt cotton farmers in Maharashtra and Gujarat in India. J. Dev. Agric. Econ., 2(1), 2010 007-017.
Vitale, J.D., Vognan, G., Ouattarra, M., Traore, O., The commercial application of GMO crops in Africa: Burkina Faso's decade of experience with Bt cotton. AgBioforum 13:4 (2010), 320–332.
Wan, P., Xu, D., Cong, S., Jiang, Y., Huang, Y., Wang, J., et al. Hybridizing transgenic Bt cotton with non-Bt cotton counters resistance in pink bollworm. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 114:21 (2017), 5413–5418.
Wang, X., Pacho, F., Liu, J., Kajungiro, R., Factors influencing organic food purchase intention in developing countries and the moderating role of knowledge. Sustainability, 11, 2019, 209.
Wang, X., Song, Y., Viral misinformation and echo chambers: the diffusion of rumors about genetically modified organisms on social media. Internet Res., 2020.
Wang, G., Wu, Y., Gao, W., Fok, M., Liang, W., Impact of Bt cotton on the farmer's livelihood system in China. ISSCRI International Conference "Rationales and Evolutions of Cotton Policies", Montpellier, France, May, 2008, 13–17.
Waigi, M.G., Wang, J., Yang, B., Owino Gudda, F., Ling, W., Liu, L., Gao, Y., Endophytic bacteria in in planta organopollutant detoxification in crops. de Voogt, P., (eds.) Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology Volume 252. (Continuation of Residue Reviews), 2019, Springer, Cham.
Yorobe, J.M. Jr., Costs and benefits of bioengineered papaya with resistance to papaya Ring Spot virus in the Philippines. Norton, G.W., Hautea, D.M., (eds.) Projected Impacts of Agricultural Biotechnologies for Fruits & Vegetables in the Philippines and Indonesia, 2009, ISAAA, the Philippines.
