[en] Alien plant species invasion depends on biotic and abiotic conditions that can represent environmental barriers as compared to their native range conditions. Specifically, little is known about how alien plant species distribute along the urban-to-rural gradients based on their native climatic conditions, and how environmental conditions along these gradients could influence intraspecific trait variation. We studied the distribution of eight woody alien plant species from contrasted native range climates along urban-to-rural gradients in European areas with a temperate climate (hereafter termed oceanic Europe). During two consecutive summers and in the Belgian part of oceanic Europe, we then measured their intraspecific trait variation using the nitrogen balance index (NBI), chlorophyll content, flavonols index, specific leaf area (SLA) and internode space. Urban-to-rural gradients were characterized by a system of local climate zones (LCZ), the percentage of artificially sealed surfaces (urbanity) and the sky view factor (SVF). We found that the distribution of studied species in the LCZ classes was highly dependent on the climate of their native range, with species from warm climates occurring more in the most urban areas while the ones from cool climates preferred the more rural or natural areas. However, their intraspecific trait variation was not related to the LCZ class in which they grew, nor to their native climate. Instead, we found a surprisingly consistent effect of shielded environments (low SVF) along the entire urban-to-rural gradient on leaf and development traits. Such environments induced a lower leaf flavonols index and higher NBI and SLA, suggesting a shade response and possibly lower heat and drought stress. Our results show that although woody alien plant species from warmer or cooler native climates distributed differently along the urbanization gradient in oceanic Europe, they did not show contrasted intraspecific trait variation. Nevertheless, our findings highlight that even if the woody alien plant species from cooler native ranges are currently more present in the most natural areas, special attention should be paid to woody alien plant species from warmer native ranges that are yet restricted to the most urban areas and could potentially have severe impacts in the future when the barriers to their spread weaken with climate change.
Disciplines :
Environmental sciences & ecology
Author, co-author :
Géron, Charly ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Université de Liège - ULiège ; Plants and Ecosystems, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium
Lembrechts, Jonas J.; Plants and Ecosystems, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium
Nijs, Ivan; Plants and Ecosystems, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium
Monty, Arnaud ; Université de Liège - ULiège > TERRA Research Centre > Biodiversité et Paysage
Language :
English
Title :
Woody invaders from contrasted climatic origins distribute differently across the urban-to-rural gradient in oceanic Europe – Is it trait-related?
F.R.S.-FNRS - Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique [BE]
Funding text :
This work was supported by the FC 23371 grant from the Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique, Brussels (Belgium) (FNRS). We thank Johanna Breyne, Thomas Coppée, Louis Forêt, Sophie Meeûs, Kathleen Mercken, Marine Nico, Vanille Taddei, Cynthia Thomas and Naomi De Vries for their valuable help in the field and the laboratory. We thank two anonymous reviewers who helped us improve previous versions of the manuscript.
Akin-Fajiye, M., Akomolafe, G.F., Disturbance is an important predictor of the distribution of Lantana camara and Chromolaena odorata in Africa. Vegetos 34 (2021), 42–49, 10.1007/s42535-020-00179-6.
Alberti, M., Correa, C., Marzluff, J.M., Hendry, A.P., Palkovacs, E.P., Gotanda, K.M., Hunt, V.M., Apgar, T.M., Zhou, Y., Global urban signatures of phenotypic change in animal and plant populations. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 114 (2017), 8951–8956, 10.1073/pnas.1606034114.
Alexander, J.M., Edwards, P.J., Limits to the niche and range margins of alien species. Oikos 119 (2010), 1377–1386, 10.1111/j.1600-0706.2009.17977.x.
Alexander, J.M., Kueffer, C., Daehler, C.C., Edwards, P.J., Pauchard, A., Seipel, T., Arévalo, J., Cavieres, L., Dietz, H., Jakobs, G., McDougall, K., Naylor, B., Otto, R., Parks, C.G., Rew, L., Walsh, N., Assembly of nonnative floras along elevational gradients explained by directional ecological filtering. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 108 (2011), 656–661, 10.1073/pnas.1013136108.
Anjos, M., Targino, A.C., Krecl, P., Oukawa, G.Y., Braga, R.F., Analysis of the urban heat island under different synoptic patterns using local climate zones. Build. Environ., 2020, 185, 10.1016/j.buildenv.2020.107268.
Arnds, D., Böhner, J., Bechtel, B., Spatio-temporal variance and meteorological drivers of the urban heat island in a European city. Theor. Appl. Climatol. 128 (2017), 43–61, 10.1007/s00704-015-1687-4.
Atwater, D.Z., Ervine, C., Barney, J.N., Climatic niche shifts are common in introduced plants. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 2 (2018), 34–43, 10.1038/s41559-017-0396-z.
Axmanová, I., Kalusová, V., Danihelka, J., Dengler, J., Pergl, J., Pyšek, P., Večeřa, M., Attorre, F., Biurrun, I., Boch, S., Conradi, T., Jiménez-Alfaro, B., Knollova, I., Kuzemko, A., Lenoir, J., Leostrin, A., Medvecka, J., Moeslund, J.E., Obratov-Petkovic, D., Svenning, J.-C., Tsiripidis, I., Vassilev, K., Chytry, M., Neophyte invasions in European grasslands. J. Veg. Sci., 2021, 1–17, 10.1111/jvs.12994.
Ballizany, W.L., Hofmann, R.W., Jahufer, M.Z.Z., Barrett, B.A., Multivariate associations of flavonoid and biomass accumulation in white clover (Trifolium repens) under drought. Funct. Plant Biol. 39 (2012), 167–177, 10.1071/FP11193.
Barton, K., 2009. MuMIn: multi-model inference. 〈http://r-forge.r-project.org/projects/mumin/〉.
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., Walker, S., Christensen, R.H.B., Singmann, H., Dai, B., Scheipl, F., Grotendieck, G., Green, P., Fox, J., 2020. Linear Mixed-Effects Models using “Eigen” and S4.
Bazzichetto, M., Massol, F., Carboni, M., Lenoir, J., Lembrechts, J.J., Joly, R., Renault, D., Once upon a time in the far south: Influence of local drivers and functional traits on plant invasion in the harsh sub-Antarctic islands. J. Veg. Sci. 32 (2021), 1–13, 10.1111/jvs.13057.
Beck, H.E., Zimmermann, N.E., Mcvicar, T.R., Vergopolan, N., Berg, A., Wood, E.F., Data descriptor: present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km. Sci. Data, 2018, 5, 10.1038/sdata.2018.214.
Berger, S., Söhlke, G., Walther, G.R., Pott, R., Bioclimatic limits and range shifts of cold-hardy evergreen broad-leaved species at their northern distributional limit in Europe. Phytocoenologia 37 (2007), 523–539, 10.1127/0340-269X/2007/0037-0523.
Bindewald, A., Michiels, H.G., Bauhus, J., Risk is in the eye of the assessor: comparing risk assessments of four non-native tree species in Germany. Forestry 93 (2020), 519–534, 10.1093/FORESTRY/CPZ052.
Blackburn, T.M., Essl, F., Evans, T., Hulme, P.E., Jeschke, J.M., Kühn, I., Kumschick, S., Marková, Z., Mrugała, A., Nentwig, W., Pergl, J., Pyšek, P., Rabitsch, W., Ricciardi, A., Richardson, D.M., Sendek, A., Vilà, M., Wilson, J.R.U., Winter, M., Genovesi, P., Bacher, S., A unified classification of alien species based on the magnitude of their environmental impacts. PLOS Biol., 2014, 12, 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001850.
Bonamente, E., Rossi, F., Coccia, V., Pisello, A.L., Nicolini, A., Castellani, B., Cotana, F., Filipponi, M., Morini, E., Santamouris, M., An energy-balanced analytic model for urban heat canyons: comparison with experimental data. Adv. Build. Energy Res. 7 (2013), 222–234, 10.1080/17512549.2013.865561.
Borowy, D., Swan, C.M., A multi-trait comparison of an urban plant species pool reveals the importance of intraspecific trait variation and its influence on distinct functional responses to soil quality. Front. Ecol. Evol. 8 (2020), 1–20, 10.3389/fevo.2020.00068.
Botham, M.S., Rothery, P., Hulme, P.E., Hill, M.O., Preston, C.D., Roy, D.B., Do urban areas act as foci for the spread of alien plant species? An assessment of temporal trends in the UK. Divers. Distrib. 15 (2009), 338–345, 10.1111/j.1472-4642.2008.00539.x.
Bouderias, S., Teszlák, P., Jakab, G., Kőrösi, L., Age- and season-dependent pattern of flavonol glycosides in Cabernet Sauvignon grapevine leaves. Sci. Rep. 10 (2020), 1–9, 10.1038/s41598-020-70706-7.
Brans, K.I., Govaert, L., Engelen, J.M.T., Gianuca, A.T., Souffreau, C., De Meester, L., Eco-evolutionary dynamics in urbanized landscapes: Evolution, species sorting and the change in zooplankton body size along urbanization gradients. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 372 (2017), 1–11, 10.1098/rstb.2016.0030.
Brossa, R., Casals, A.I., Pintó-Marijuan, A.M., Fleck, A.I., Leaf flavonoid content in Quercus ilex L. resprouts and its seasonal variation. Trees 23 (2009), 401–408, 10.1007/s00468-008-0289-5.
Caluwaerts, S., Hamdi, R., Top, S., Lauwaet, D., Berckmans, J., Degrauwe, D., Dejonghe, H., De Ridder, K., De Troch, R., Duchêne, F., Maiheu, B., Van Ginderachter, M., Verdonck, M.L., Vergauwen, T., Wauters, G., Termonia, P., The urban climate of Ghent, Belgium: a case study combining a high-accuracy monitoring network with numerical simulations. Urban Clim., 31, 2020, 100565, 10.1016/j.uclim.2019.100565.
Campagnaro, T., Brundu, G., Sitzia, T., Five major invasive alien tree species in European Union forest habitat types of the alpine and continental biogeographical regions. J. Nat. Conserv. 43 (2018), 227–238, 10.1016/j.jnc.2017.07.007.
Canessa, R., Saldaña, A., Ríos, R.S., Gianoli, E., Functional trait variation predicts distribution of alien plant species across the light gradient in a temperate rainforest. Perspect. Plant Ecol. Evol. Syst. 32 (2018), 49–55, 10.1016/j.ppees.2018.04.002.
Catford, J.A., Vesk, P.A., White, M.D., Wintle, B.A., Hotspots of plant invasion predicted by propagule pressure and ecosystem characteristics. Divers. Distrib. 17 (2011), 1099–1110, 10.1111/j.1472-4642.2011.00794.x.
Celesti-Grapow, L., Ricotta, C., Plant invasion as an emerging challenge for the conservation of heritage sites: the spread of ornamental trees on ancient monuments in Rome, Italy. Biol. Invasions, 2020, 9, 10.1007/s10530-020-02429-9.
Čeplová, N., Lososová, Z., Kalusová, V., Urban ornamental trees: a source of current invaders; a case study from a European City. Urban Ecosyst. 20 (2017), 1135–1140, 10.1007/s11252-017-0665-2.
Cerovic, Z.G., Masdoumier, G., Ghozlen, N., Ben, Latouche, G., A new optical leaf-clip meter for simultaneous non-destructive assessment of leaf chlorophyll and epidermal flavonoids. Physiol. Plant. 146 (2012), 251–260, 10.1111/j.1399-3054.2012.01639.x.
Cerovic, Z.G., Ghozlen, N., Ben, Milhade, C., Obert, M., Debuisson, S., Le Moigne, M., Nondestructive diagnostic test for nitrogen nutrition of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) based on dualex leaf-clip measurements in the field. J. Agric. Food Chem. 63 (2015), 3669–3680, 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b00304.
Chevin, L.-M., Lande, R., Mace, G.M., Adaptation, plasticity, and extinction in a changing environment: towards a predictive theory. PLOS One 8 (2010), 1–8, 10.1371/journal.pbio.1000357.
Chytrý, M., Maskell, L.C., Pino, J., Pyšek, P., Vilà, M., Font, X., Smart, S.M., Habitat invasions by alien plants: a quantitative comparison among Mediterranean, subcontinental and oceanic regions of Europe. J. Appl. Ecol., 2008, 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2007.01398.x.
Cosgrove, A., Berkelhammer, M., Downwind footprint of an urban heat island on air and lake temperatures. npj Clim. Atmos. Sci. 1 (2018), 1–10, 10.1038/s41612-018-0055-3.
Demuzere, M., Bechtel, B., Middel, A., Mills, G., Mapping Europe into local climate zones. PLOS One 14 (2019), 1–2, 10.1371/journal.pone.0214474.
von der Lippe, M., Säumel, I., Kowarik, I., Cities as drivers for biological invasions - The role of urban climate and traffic. Die Erde 136 (2005), 123–143.
Diago, M.P., Rey-Carames, C., Le Moigne, M., Fadaili, E.M., Tardaguila, J., Cerovic, Z.G., Calibration of non-invasive fluorescence-based sensors for the manual and on-the-go assessment of grapevine vegetative status in the field. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 22 (2016), 438–449, 10.1111/ajgw.12228.
Dian, C., Pongrácz, R., Dezső, Z., Bartholy, J., Annual and monthly analysis of surface urban heat island intensity with respect to the local climate zones in Budapest. Urban Clim., 31, 2020, 100573, 10.1016/j.uclim.2019.100573.
Dirksen, M., Ronda, R.J., Theeuwes, N.E., Pagani, G.A., Sky view factor calculations and its application in urban heat island studies. Urban Clim., 30, 2019, 100498, 10.1016/j.uclim.2019.100498.
Dong, R., Miao, Y., Wang, X., Chen, Z., Yuan, F., Improving maize nitrogen nutrition index prediction using leaf fluorescence sensor combined with environmental and management variables. Field Crop. Res., 269, 2021, 108180, 10.1016/j.fcr.2021.108180.
Dongyun, M., Dexiang, S., Chenyang, W., Yaoguang, L., Tiancai, G., Expression of flavonoid biosynthesis genes and accumulation of flavonoid in wheat leaves in response to drought stress. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 80 (2014), 60–66, 10.1016/j.plaphy.2014.03.024.
Duan, H., Wu, J., Huang, G., Zhou, S., Liu, W., Liao, Y., Yang, X., Xiao, Z., Fan, H., Wu, J, D.H., Individual and interactive effects of drought and heat on leaf physiology of seedlings in an economically important crop. AoB Plants 9 (2016), 1–15, 10.1093/aobpla/plw090.
Dullinger, I., Wessely, J., Bossdorf, O., Dawson, W., Essl, F., Gattringer, A., Klonner, G., Kreft, H., Kuttner, M., Moser, D., Pergl, J., Pyšek, P., Thuiller, W., van Kleunen, M., Weigelt, P., Winter, M., Dullinger, S., Climate change will increase the naturalization risk from garden plants in Europe. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 26 (2017), 43–53, 10.1111/geb.12512.
Esperon-Rodriguez, M., Rymer, P.D., Power, S.A., Challis, A., Marchin, R.M., Tjoelker, M.G., Functional adaptations and trait plasticity of urban trees along a climatic gradient. Urban For. Urban Green., 2020, 54, 10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126771.
Essl, F., From ornamental to detrimental? The incipient invasion of Central Europe by Paulownia tomentosa. Preslia 79 (2007), 377–389.
Fernández Honaine, M., Montti, L., Qi, W., Osterrieth, M., Anatomical traits, silica content and herbivory damage in leaves of invasive tree Ligustrum lucidum developed in novel and native ranges. Flora Morphol. Distrib. Funct. Ecol. Plants, 258, 2019, 151447, 10.1016/j.flora.2019.151447.
Fick, Stephen E., Hijmans, Robert J., WorldClim 2: new 1-km spatial resolution climate surfaces for global land areas. International Journal of Climatology 37:12 (2017), 4302–4315, 10.1002/joc.5086.
Fisogni, A., Hautekèete, N., Piquot, Y., Brun, M., Vanappelghem, C., Michez, D., Massol, F., Urbanization drives an early spring for plants but not for pollinators. Oikos 129 (2020), 1681–1691, 10.1111/oik.07274.
Fortuniak, K., Kłysik, K., Wibig, J., Urban - Rural contrasts of meteorological parameters in Łódź. Theor. Appl. Climatol. 84 (2006), 91–101, 10.1007/s00704-005-0147-y.
Francis, R.A., Chadwick, M.A., What makes a species synurbic?. Appl. Geogr. 32 (2012), 514–521, 10.1016/j.apgeog.2011.06.013.
Fried, G., Caño, L., Brunel, S., Beteta, E., Charpentier, A., Herrera, M., Starfinger, U., Dane Panetta, F., Botany Letters Monographs on Invasive Plants in Europe: Baccharis halimifolia L. Bot. Lett. 163 (2016), 127–153, 10.1080/23818107.2016.1168315.
Fusaro, L., Salvatori, E., Mereu, S., Manes, F., Photosynthetic traits as indicators for phenotyping urban and peri-urban forests: A case study in the metropolitan city of Rome. Ecol. Indic. 103 (2019), 301–311, 10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.04.033.
Galwey, N.W., 2006. Introduction to Mixed Modelling: Beyond Regression and Analysis of Variance. Chichester, West Sussex, United Kingdom. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118861769.
García-Plazaola, J.I., Esteban, R., Hormaetxe, K., Fernández-Marín, B., Becerril, J.M., Photoprotective responses of Mediterranean and Atlantic trees to the extreme heat-wave of summer 2003 in Southwestern Europe. Trees - Struct. Funct. 22 (2008), 385–392, 10.1007/s00468-007-0199-y.
GBIF, 2020. The Global Biodiversity Information Facility: What is GBIF? [WWW Document].
Géron, C., Lembrechts, J.J., Borgelt, J., Lenoir, J., Hamdi, R., Mahy, G., Nijs, I., Monty, A., 2021. Urban alien plants in temperate oceanic regions of Europe originate from warmer native ranges. Biol. Invasions.
Gilbert, O.L., Symphoricarpos albus (L.) S. F. Blake (S. rivularis SUKSD., S. racemosus Michaux). J. Ecol. 83 (1995), 159–166.
Gioria, M., Pyšek, P., Early bird catches the worm: germination as a critical step in plant invasion. Biol. Invasions 19 (2017), 1055–1080, 10.1007/s10530-016-1349-1.
Godefroid, S., Ricotta, C., Alien plant species do have a clear preference for different land uses within urban environments. Urban Ecosyst. 21 (2018), 1189–1198, 10.1007/s11252-018-0792-4.
Godoy, O., Richardson, D.M., Valladares, F., Castro-Díez, P., Flowering phenology of invasive alien plant species compared with native species in three Mediterranean-type ecosystems. Ann. Bot. 103 (2009), 485–494, 10.1093/aob/mcn232.
Godoy, O., de Lemos-Filho, J.P., Valladares, F., Invasive species can handle higher leaf temperature under water stress than Mediterranean natives. Environ. Exp. Bot. 71 (2011), 207–214, 10.1016/j.envexpbot.2010.12.001.
Goedecke, F., Marcenò, C., Guarino, R., Jahn, R., Bergmeier, E., Reciprocal extrapolation of species distribution models between two islands – Specialists perform better than generalists and geological data reduces prediction accuracy. Ecol. Indic., 2020, 108, 10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.105652.
Gorton, A.J., Moeller, D.A., Tiffin, P., Little plant, big city: a test of adaptation to urban environments in common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia). Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci., 2018, 285, 10.1098/rspb.2018.0968.
Gregg, J.W., Jones, C.G., Dawson, T.E., Urban ozone depletion: why a tree grows better in New York City. Nature 424 (2003), 183–187, 10.1038/nature01776.1.
Grimmond, C.S.B., Potter, S.K., Zutter, H.N., Souch, C., Rapid methods to estimate sky-view factors applied to urban areas. Int. J. Climatol. 21 (2001), 903–913, 10.1002/joc.659.
Guarino, R., Chytrý, M., Attorre, F., Landucci, F., Marcenò, C., Alien plant invasions in Mediterranean habitats: an assessment for Sicily. Biol. Invasions 23 (2021), 3091–3107, 10.1007/s10530-021-02561-0.
Guilbert, D., Caluwaerts, S., Calle, K., Van Den Bossche, N., Cnudde, V., De Kock, T., Impact of the urban heat island on freeze-thaw risk of natural stone in the built environment, a case study in Ghent, Belgium. Sci. Total Environ. 677 (2019), 9–18, 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.04.344.
Hamdi, R., Termonia, P., Baguis, P., Effects of urbanization and climate change on surface runoff of the Brussels Capital Region: a case study using an urban soil – vegetation – atmosphere-transfer model. Int. J. Climatol. 31 (2011), 1959–1974, 10.1002/joc.2207.
Hamdi, R., Giot, O., De Troch, R., Deckmyn, A., Termonia, P., Future climate of Brussels and Paris for the 2050s under the A1B scenario. Urban Clim. 12 (2015), 160–182, 10.1016/j.uclim.2015.03.003.
Hatier, J.-H.B., Gould, K., 2009. Anthocyanin Function in Vegetative Organs, in: Anthocyanins: Biosynthesis, Functions, and Applications. pp. 1–19. Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2008. https://doi.org/10.1007/978–0-387–77335-3.
Iacarella, J.C., Dick, J.T.A., Alexander, M.E., Ricciardi, A., Ecological impacts of invasive alien species along temperature gradients: testing the role of environmental matching. Ecol. Appl. 25 (2015), 706–716, 10.1890/14-0545.1.
Johnson, G.T., Watson, I.D., The determination of view-factors in urban canyons. J. Clim. Appl. Meteor. 23 (1984), 329–335 https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1984)023<0329:TDOVFI>2.0.CO;2.
Kaiser, A., Merckx, T., Van Dyck, H., The Urban Heat Island and its spatial scale dependent impact on survival and development in butterflies of different thermal sensitivity. Ecol. Evol. 6 (2016), 4129–4140, 10.1002/ece3.2166.
Kew Gardens, 2021. Plants of the World Online [WWW Document]. Publ. internet. URL 〈www.plantsoftheworldonline.org〉 (accessed 2.3.21).
Khalid, M.H.B., Raza, M.A., Yu, H.Q., Sun, F.A., Zhang, Y.Y., Lu, F.Z., Si, L., Iqbal, N., Khan, I., Fu, F.L., Li, W.C., Effect of shade treatments on morphology, photosynthetic and chlorophyll fluorescence characteristics of soybeans (Glycine max L. Merr.). Appl. Ecol. Environ. Res. 17 (2019), 2551–2569, 10.15666/aeer/1702_25512569.
Khan, S.R., Rose, R., Haase, D.L., Sabin, T.E., Effects of shade on morphology, chlorophyll concentration, and chlorophyll fluorescence of four Pacific Northwest conifer species. New For. 19 (2000), 171–186, 10.1023/A:1006645632023.
Kowarik, I., Pyšek, P., Prach, K., Rejmánek, M., Wade, M., Time lags in biological invasions with regard to the success and failure of alien species. Plant Invasions: General Aspects and Special Problems, 1995, Kostelec nad Černými lesy, 15–38.
Kühn, P., Ratier Backes, A., Römermann, C., Burelheide, H., Haider, S., Contrasting patterns of intra-specific trait variability in native and non-native plant species along an elevational gradient on Tenerife, Canary Islands. Ann. Bot. 127 (2021), 565–576.
Lambdon, P.W., Pyšek, P., Basnou, C., Hejda, M., Arianoutsou, M., Essl, F., Jarošík, V., Pergl, J., Winter, M., Anastasiu, P., Andriopoulos, P., Bazos, I., Brundu, G., Celesti-Grapow, L., Chassot, P., Delipetrou, P., Josefsson, M., Kark, S., Klotz, S., Kokkoris, Y., Kühn, I., Marchante, H., Perglová, I., Pino, J., Vilà, M., Zikos, A., Roy, D.B., Hulme, P.E., Alien flora of Europe: species diversity, temporal trends, geographical patterns and research needs. Preslia 80 (2008), 101–149.
Lembrechts, J.J., Pauchard, A., Lenoir, J., Nuñez, M.A., Geron, C., Ven, A., Bravo-Monasterio, P., Teneb, E., Nijs, I., Milbau, A., Disturbance is the key to plant invasions in cold environments. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2016, 113, 10.1073/pnas.1608980113.
Lembrechts, J.J., Aalto, J., Ashcroft, M.B., De Frenne, P., Kopecký, M., Lenoir, J., Luoto, M., Maclean, I.M.D., Roupsard, O., Fuentes-Lillo, E., García, R.A., Pellissier, L., Pitteloud, C., Alatalo, J.M., Smith, S.W., Björk, R.G., Muffler, L., Ratier Backes, A., Cesarz, S., Gottschall, F., Okello, J., Urban, J., Plichta, R., Svátek, M., Phartyal, S.S., Wipf, S., Eisenhauer, N., Pușcaș, M., Turtureanu, P.D., Varlagin, A., Dimarco, R.D., Jump, A.S., Randall, K., Dorrepaal, E., Larson, K., Walz, J., Vitale, L., Svoboda, M., Finger Higgens, R., Halbritter, A.H., Curasi, S.R., Klupar, I., Koontz, A., Pearse, W.D., Simpson, E., Stemkovski, M., Jessen Graae, B., Vedel Sørensen, M., Høye, T.T., Fernández Calzado, M.R., Lorite, J., Carbognani, M., Tomaselli, M., Forte, T.G.W., Petraglia, A., Haesen, S., Somers, B., Van Meerbeek, K., Björkman, M.P., Hylander, K., Merinero, S., Gharun, M., Buchmann, N., Dolezal, J., Matula, R., Thomas, A.D., Bailey, J.J., Ghosn, D., Kazakis, G., de Pablo, M.A., Kemppinen, J., Niittynen, P., Rew, L., Seipel, T., Larson, C., Speed, J.D.M., Ardö, J., Cannone, N., Guglielmin, M., Malfasi, F., Bader, M.Y., Canessa, R., Stanisci, A., Kreyling, J., Schmeddes, J., Teuber, L., Aschero, V., Čiliak, M., Máliš, F., De Smedt, P., Govaert, S., Meeussen, C., Vangansbeke, P., Gigauri, K., Lamprecht, A., Pauli, H., Steinbauer, K., Winkler, M., Ueyama, M., Nuñez, M.A., Ursu, T.M., Haider, S., Wedegärtner, R.E.M., Smiljanic, M., Trouillier, M., Wilmking, M., Altman, J., Brůna, J., Hederová, L., Macek, M., Man, M., Wild, J., Vittoz, P., Pärtel, M., Barančok, P., Kanka, R., Kollár, J., Palaj, A., Barros, A., Mazzolari, A.C., Bauters, M., Boeckx, P., Benito Alonso, J.L., Zong, S., Di Cecco, V., Sitková, Z., Tielbörger, K., van den Brink, L., Weigel, R., Homeier, J., Dahlberg, C.J., Medinets, S., Medinets, V., De Boeck, H.J., Portillo-Estrada, M., Verryckt, L.T., Milbau, A., Daskalova, G.N., Thomas, H.J.D., Myers-Smith, I.H., Blonder, B., Stephan, J.G., Descombes, P., Zellweger, F., Frei, E.R., Heinesch, B., Andrews, C., Dick, J., Siebicke, L., Rocha, A., Senior, R.A., Rixen, C., Jimenez, J.J., Boike, J., Pauchard, A., Scholten, T., Scheffers, B., Klinges, D., Basham, E.W., Zhang, J., Zhang, Z., Géron, C., Fazlioglu, F., Candan, O., Sallo Bravo, J., Hrbacek, F., Laska, K., Cremonese, E., Haase, P., Moyano, F.E., Rossi, C., Nijs, I., SoilTemp: a global database of near-surface temperature. Glob. Chang. Biol., 2020, 1–14, 10.1111/gcb.15123.
Li, Y., Fowler, H.J., Argüeso, D., Blenkinsop, S., Evans, J.P., Lenderink, G., Yan, X., Guerreiro, S.B., Lewis, E., Li, X.F., Strong intensification of hourly rainfall extremes by urbanization. Geophys. Res. Lett. 47 (2020), 1–8, 10.1029/2020GL088758.
Lichtenthaler, H.K., Ač, A., Marek, M.V., Kalina, J., Urban, O., Differences in pigment composition, photosynthetic rates and chlorophyll fluorescence images of sun and shade leaves of four tree species. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 45 (2007), 577–588, 10.1016/j.plaphy.2007.04.006.
Lindberg, F., Thorsson, S., Rayner, D., Lau, K., The impact of urban planning strategies on heat stress in a climate-change perspective. Sustain. Cities Soc. 25 (2016), 1–12, 10.1016/j.scs.2016.04.004.
Lorenz, J.M., Kronenber, R., Bernhofer, C., Niyogi, D., Urban rainfall modification: observational climatology over Berlin, Germany. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 124 (2019), 731–746.
Lüdecke, D., Makowski, D., Waggoner, P., Patil, I., 2020. performance: Assessment of Regression Models Performance. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3952174.
Mandelmilch, M., Ferenz, M., Mandelmilch, N., Potchter, O., Urban spatial patterns and heat exposure in the Mediterranean City of Tel Aviv. Atmosphere 11 (2020), 1–19, 10.3390/ATMOS11090963.
McDonnell, M.J., The history of urban ecology. Niemelä, J., Breuste, J.H., Elmqvist, T., Guntenspergen, G., James, P., McIntyre, N.E., (eds.) Urban Ecology: Patterns, Processes and Applications, 2011, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 5–13, 10.4324/9780203717134.
McKinney, M.L., Urbanization, biodiversity, and conservation. Bioscience 52 (2002), 883–890.
McKinney, M.L., Urbanization as a major cause of biotic homogenization. Biol. Conserv. 127 (2006), 247–260, 10.1016/j.biocon.2005.09.005.
Mediavilla, S., Martín, I., Babiano, J., Escudero, A., Foliar plasticity related to gradients of heat and drought stress across crown orientations in three Mediterranean Quercus species. PLOS One 14 (2019), 1–17, 10.1371/journal.pone.0224462.
Middel, A., Krayenhoff, E.S., Micrometeorological determinants of pedestrian thermal exposure during record-breaking heat in Tempe, Arizona: introducing the MaRTy observational platform. Sci. Total Environ. 687 (2019), 137–151, 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.06.085.
Middel, A., Lukasczyk, J., Maciejewski, R., Demuzere, M., Roth, M., Sky view factor footprints for urban climate modeling. Urban Clim. 25 (2018), 120–134, 10.1016/j.uclim.2018.05.004.
Milanović, M., Knapp, S., Pyšek, P., Kühn, I., Trait-environment relationships of plant species at different stages of the introduction process. NeoBiota 58 (2020), 55–74, 10.3897/neobiota.58.51655.
Molina-Montenegro, M.A., Peñuelas, J., Munné-Bosch, S., Sardans, J., Higher plasticity in ecophysiological traits enhances the performance and invasion success of Taraxacum officinale (dandelion) in alpine environments. Biol. Invasions 14 (2012), 21–33, 10.1007/s10530-011-0055-2.
Montecchiari, S., Tesei, G., Allegrezza, M., Ailanthus altissima forests determine a shift in herbaceous layer richness: a paired comparison with hardwood native forests in sub-mediterranean europe. Plants 9 (2020), 1–14, 10.3390/plants9101404.
Monty, A., Bizoux, J.P., Escarré, J., Mahy, G., Rapid plant invasion in distinct climates involves different sources of phenotypic variation. PLOS One, 2013, 8, 10.1371/journal.pone.0055627.
Natuurpunt, Natagora, Natuurinformatie, S., 2018. Observations originating from Waarnemingen.be/Observations.be [WWW Document]. Obs. Orig. from Waarnemingen.be/Observations.be.
Nicotra, A.B., Atkin, O.K., Bonser, S.P., Davidson, A.M., Finnegan, E.J., Mathesius, U., Poot, P., Purugganan, M.D., Richards, C.L., Valladares, F., van Kleunen, M., Plant phenotypic plasticity in a changing climate. Trends Plant Sci. 15 (2010), 684–692, 10.1016/j.tplants.2010.09.008.
Oke, T.R., Canyon geometry and the nocturnal urban heat island: Comparison of scale model and field observations. J. Climatol. 1 (1981), 237–254, 10.1002/joc.3370010304.
Olden, J.D., Rooney, T.P., On defining and quantifying biotic homogenization. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 15 (2006), 113–120, 10.1111/j.1466-822X.2006.00214.x.
Oliveira, S., Andrade, H., Vaz, T., The cooling effect of green spaces as a contribution to the mitigation of urban heat: a case study in Lisbon. Build. Environ. 46 (2011), 2186–2194, 10.1016/j.buildenv.2011.04.034.
Pavao-Zuckerman, M.A., The nature of urban soils and their role in ecological restoration in cities. Restor. Ecol. 16 (2008), 642–649, 10.1111/j.1526-100X.2008.00486.x.
Paz-Dyderska, S., Ladach-zajdler, A., Jagodzinski, A.M., Dyderski, M.K., Landscape and parental tree availability drive spread of Ailanthus altissima in the urban ecosystem of Poznan. Urban For. Urban Green. 56 (2020), 1–10, 10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126868.
Phillips, S.J., Anderson, R.P., Schapire, R.E., Maximum entropy modeling of species geographic distributions. Ecol. Modell. 190 (2006), 231–259, 10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2005.03.026.
Phillips, S.J., Anderson, R.P., Dudík, M., Schapire, R.E., Blair, M.E., Opening the black box: an open-source release of Maxent. Ecography 40 (2017), 887–893, 10.1111/ecog.03049.
Phillips, S.J., Dudík, M., Schapire, R.E., 2004. A maximum entropy approach to species distribution modeling. In: Proceedings of the Twenty-First International Conference on Machine Learning ICML. pp. 655–662. https://doi.org/10.1145/1015330.1015412.
Porté, A.J., Lamarque, L.J., Lortie, C.J., Michalet, R., Delzon, S., Invasive Acer negundo outperforms native species in non-limiting resource environments due to its higher phenotypic plasticity. BMC Ecol., 2011, 11, 10.1186/1472-6785-11-28.
Potgieter, L.J., Gaertner, M., Kueffer, C., Larson, B.M.H., Livingstone, S.W., O'Farrell, P.J., Richardson, D.M., Alien plants as mediators of ecosystem services and disservices in urban systems: a global review. Biol. Invasions 19 (2017), 3571–3588, 10.1007/s10530-017-1589-8.
POWO, 2020. Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet [WWW Document].
Pyšek, P., Jarošík, V., Hulme, P.E., Kühn, I., Wild, J., Arianoutsou, M., Bacher, S., Chiron, F., Didžiulis, V., Essl, F., Genovesi, P., Gherardi, F., Hejda, M., Kark, S., Lambdon, P.W., Desprez-Loustau, M.L., Nentwig, W., Pergl, J., Poboljšaj, K., Rabitsch, W., Roques, A., Roy, D.B., Shirley, S., Solarz, W., Vilà, M., Winter, M., Disentangling the role of environmental and human pressures on biological invasions across Europe. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 107 (2010), 12157–12162, 10.1073/pnas.1002314107.
Quero, J.L., Villar, R., Marañón, T., Zamora, R., Interactions of drought and shade effects on seedlings of four Quercus species: physiological and structural leaf responses. N. Phytol. 170 (2006), 819–834, 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2006.01713.x.
R Core Team, 2018. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing.
Rahman, M.A., Armson, D., Ennos, A.R., Effect of urbanization and climate change in the rooting zone on the growth and physiology of Pyrus calleryana. Urban For. Urban Green. 13 (2014), 325–335, 10.1016/j.ufug.2013.10.004.
Rasband, W.S., 2018. ImageJ.
Ren, Z., He, X., Zheng, H., Zhang, D., Yu, X., Shen, G., Guo, R., Estimation of the relationship between urban park characteristics and park cool island intensity by remote sensing data and field measurement. Forests 4 (2013), 868–886, 10.3390/f4040868.
Ricciardi, A., Hoopes, M.F., Marchetti, M.P., Lockwood, J.L., Progress toward understanding the ecological impacts of nonnative species. Ecol. Monogr. 83 (2013), 263–282, 10.1890/13-0183.1.
Richardson, D.M., Rejmánek, M., Trees and shrubs as invasive alien species - a global review. Divers. Distrib. 17 (2011), 788–809, 10.1111/j.1472-4642.2011.00782.x.
Richardson, D.M., Pyšek, P., Rejmánek, M., Barbour, M.G., Panetta, F.D., West, C.J., Naturalization and invasion of alien plants: concepts and definitions. Divers. Distrib. 6 (2000), 93–107.
RMI, 2019. Bilan climatologique mensuel: Juillet 2019. Uccle, Belgium.
RMI, 2020. Bilan climatologique mensuel: Juillet 2020. Uccle, Belgium.
Rusterholz, H.P., Schneuwly, J., Baur, B., Invasion of the alien shrub Prunus laurocerasus in suburban deciduous forests: Effects on native vegetation and soil properties. Acta Oecologica 92 (2018), 44–51, 10.1016/j.actao.2018.08.004.
Schlünzen, K.H., Hoffmann, P., Rosenhagen, G., Riecke, W., Long-term changes and regional differences in temperature and precipitation in the metropolitan area of Hamburg. Int. J. Climatol. 30 (2010), 1121–1136, 10.1002/joc.1968.
Schmidt, K.J., Poppendieck, H.H., Jensen, K., Effects of urban structure on plant species richness in a large European city. Urban Ecosyst. 17 (2014), 427–444, 10.1007/s11252-013-0319-y.
Seabloom, E.W., Borer, E.T., Buckley, Y.M., Cleland, E.E., Davies, K.F., Firn, J., Harpole, W.S., Hautier, Y., Lind, E.M., Macdougall, A.S., Orrock, J.L., Prober, S.M., Adler, P.B., Anderson, T.M., Bakker, J.D., Biederman, L.A., Blumenthal, D.M., Brown, C.S., Brudvig, L.A., Cadotte, M., Chu, C., Cottingham, K.L., Crawley, M.J., Damschen, E.I., Dantonio, C.M., Decrappeo, N.M., Du, G., Fay, P.A., Frater, P., Gruner, D.S., Hagenah, N., Hector, A., Hillebrand, H., Hofmockel, K.S., Humphries, H.C., Jin, V.L., Kay, A., Kirkman, K.P., Klein, J.A., Knops, J.M.H., La Pierre, K.J., Ladwig, L., Lambrinos, J.G., Li, Q., Li, W., Marushia, R., Mcculley, R.L., Melbourne, B.A., Mitchell, C.E., Moore, J.L., Morgan, J., Mortensen, B., O'halloran, L.R., Pyke, D.A., Risch, A.C., Sankaran, M., Schuetz, M., Simonsen, A., Smith, M.D., Stevens, C.J., Sullivan, L., Wolkovich, E., Wragg, P.D., Wright, J., Yang, L., Plant species origin predicts dominance and response to nutrient enrichment and herbivores in global grasslands. Nat. Commun., 2015, 6, 10.1038/ncomms8710.
Seebens, H., Blackburn, T.M., Dyer, E.E., Genovesi, P., Hulme, P.E., Jeschke, J.M., Pagad, S., Pysek, P., Winter, M., Arianoutsou, M., Bacher, S., Blasius, B., Brundu, G., Capinha, C., Celesti-Grapow, L., Dawson, W., Dullinger, S., Fuentes, N., Jäger, H., Kartesz, J., Kenis, M., Kreft, H., Kühn, I., Lenzner, B., Liebhold, A., Mosena, A., Moser, D., Nishimo, M., Pearman, D., Pergl, J., Rabitsch, W., Rojas-Sandoval, J., Roques, A., Rorke, S., Rossinelli, S., Roy, H.E., Scalera, R., Schindler, S., Stajerova, K., Tokarska-Guzik, B., van Kleunen, M., Walker, K., Weigelt, P., Yamanaka, T., Essl, F., No saturation in the accumulation of alien species worldwide. Nat. Commun. 8 (2017), 1–9, 10.1038/ncomms14435.
Sladonja, B., Sušek, M., Guillermic, J., Review on invasive tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle) conflicting values: assessment of its ecosystem services and potential biological threat. Environ. Manag. 56 (2015), 1009–1034, 10.1007/s00267-015-0546-5.
Song, G., Wang, J., Han, T., Wang, Q., Ren, H., Zhu, H., Wen, X., Hui, D., Changes in plant functional traits and their relationships with environmental factors along an urban-rural gradient in Guangzhou, China. Ecol. Indic., 106, 2019, 105558, 10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.105558.
Steeneveld, G.J., Koopmans, S., Heusinkveld, B.G., Van Hove, L.W.A., Holtslag, A.A.M., Quantifying urban heat island effects and human comfort for cities of variable size and urban morphology in the Netherlands. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 116 (2011), 1–14, 10.1029/2011JD015988.
Stewart, I.D., Oke, T.R., Local climate zones for urban temperature studies. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 93 (2012), 1879–1900, 10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00019.1.
Tan, Z., Lau, K.K.L., Ng, E., Urban tree design approaches for mitigating daytime urban heat island effects in a high-density urban environment. Energy Build. 114 (2016), 265–274, 10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.06.031.
Theeuwes, N.E., Steeneveld, G.J., Ronda, R.J., Holtslag, A.A.M., A diagnostic equation for the daily maximum urban heat island effect for cities in northwestern Europe. Int. J. Climatol. 37 (2017), 443–454, 10.1002/joc.4717.
Top, S., Milošević, D., Caluwaerts, S., Hamdi, R., Savić, S., Intra-urban differences of outdoor thermal comfort in Ghent on seasonal level and during record-breaking 2019 heat wave. Build. Environ., 2020, 185, 10.1016/j.buildenv.2020.107103.
Toparlar, Y., Blocken, B., Maiheu, B., van Heijst, G.J.F., The effect of an urban park on the microclimate in its vicinity: a case study for Antwerp, Belgium. Int. J. Climatol. 38 (2018), e303–e322, 10.1002/joc.5371.
van Geel, M., Yu, K., Peeters, G., van Acker, K., Ramos, M., Serafim, C., Kastendeuch, P., Najjar, G., Ameglio, T., Ngao, J., Saudreau, M., Castro, P., Somers, B., Honnay, O., Soil organic matter rather than ectomycorrhizal diversity is related to urban tree health. PLOS One 14 (2019), 1–14, 10.1371/journal.pone.0225714.
van Kleunen, M., Dawson, W., Maurel, N., Characteristics of successful alien plants. Mol. Ecol. 24 (2015), 1954–1968, 10.1111/mec.13013.
van Kleunen, M., Essl, F., Pergl, J., Brundu, G., Carboni, M., Dullinger, S., Early, R., González-Moreno, P., Groom, Q.J., Hulme, P.E., Kueffer, C., Kühn, I., Máguas, C., Maurel, N., Novoa, A., Parepa, M., Pyšek, P., Seebens, H., Tanner, R., Touza, J., Verbrugge, L., Weber, E., Dawson, W., Kreft, H., Weigelt, P., Winter, M., Klonner, G., Talluto, M.V., Dehnen-Schmutz, K., The changing role of ornamental horticulture in alien plant invasions. Biol. Rev. 93 (2018), 1421–1437, 10.1111/brv.12402.
Walther, G.R., Roques, A., Hulme, P.E., Sykes, M.T., Pyšek, P., Kühn, I., Zobel, M., Bacher, S., Botta-Dukát, Z., Bugmann, H., Czúcz, B., Dauber, J., Hickler, T., Jarošík, V., Kenis, M., Klotz, S., Minchin, D., Moora, M., Nentwig, W., Ott, J., Panov, V.E., Reineking, B., Robinet, C., Semenchenko, V., Solarz, W., Thuiller, W., Vilà, M., Vohland, K., Settele, J., Alien species in a warmer world: risks and opportunities. Trends Ecol. Evol. 24 (2009), 686–693, 10.1016/j.tree.2009.06.008.
Wang, Y., Bakker, F., de Groot, R., Wortche, H., Leemans, R., Effects of urban trees on local outdoor microclimate: synthesizing field measurements by numerical modelling. Urban Ecosyst. 18 (2015), 1305–1331, 10.1007/s11252-015-0447-7.
Ward, K., Lauf, S., Kleinschmit, B., Endlicher, W., Heat waves and urban heat islands in Europe: a review of relevant drivers. Sci. Total Environ. 569–570 (2016), 527–539, 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.06.119.
Watson, I.D., Johnson, G.T., Graphical estimation of sky view-factors in urban environments. J. Clim. 7 (1987), 193–197, 10.1002/joc.3370070210.
Weinig, C., Delph, L.F., Phenotypic plasticity early in life constrains developmental responses later. Evolution 55 (2001), 930–936, 10.1111/j.0014-3820.2001.tb00610.x.
Westerband, A.C., Funk, J.L., Barton, K.E., Intraspecific trait variation in plants: a renewed focus on its role in ecological processes. Ann. Bot. 127 (2021), 397–410, 10.1093/aob/mcab011.
Williams, N.S.G., Hahs, A.K., Vesk, P.A., Urbanisation, plant traits and the composition of urban floras. Perspect. Plant Ecol. Evol. Syst. 17 (2015), 78–86, 10.1016/j.ppees.2014.10.002.
Wilson, J.R.U., Richardson, D.M., Rouget, M., Procheş, Ş., Amis, M.A., Henderson, L., Thuiller, W., Residence time and potential range: crucial considerations in modelling plant invasions. Divers. Distrib. 13 (2007), 11–22, 10.1111/j.1366-9516.2006.00302.x.
Wolkovich, E.M., Davies, J.T., Schaefer, H., Cleland, E.E., Cook, B.I., Travers, S.E., Willis, C.G., Davis, C.C., Temperature-dependent shifts in phenology contribute to the success of exotic species with climate change. Am. J. Bot. 100 (2013), 1407–1421, 10.3732/ajb.1200478.
Zhao, L., Lee, X., Smith, R.B., Oleson, K., Strong contributions of local background climate to urban heat islands. Nature, 2014, 511, 10.1038/nature13462.
Zieritz, A., Gallardo, B., Baker, S.J., Britton, R.J., van Valkenburg, J.L.C.H., Verreycken, H., Aldridge, D.C., Changes in pathways and vectors of biological invasions in Northwest Europe. Biol. Invasions 19 (2017), 269–282, 10.1007/s10530-016-1278-z.
Ziter, C.D., Pedersen, E.J., Kucharik, C.J., Turner, M.G., Scale-dependent interactions between tree canopy cover and impervious surfaces reduce daytime urban heat during summer. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 15 (2019), 7575–7580, 10.1073/pnas.1817561116.
