AFFM; cross-cultural; Dark Triad traits; HEXACO; personality; SD3; Social Psychology; Cultural Studies; Anthropology
Abstract :
[en] This research explores the Dark Triad traits in 18 cultures from Europe, America, Africa, and Asia. We examined the relationships among Dark Triad traits, as measured by the SD3, with gender, age, social status, and two personality models, HEXACO and Zuckerman’s alternative five factor model (AFFM). There were 10,298 participants (5,410 women and 4,888 men) with a mean age of 40.31 (SD = 17.32) years old. Between 6% and 16% of the variance in the Dark Triad traits was accounted by culture. Men scored higher than women on all three traits in most cultures, but gender differences were generally larger in European countries. The relationship between the Dark Triad traits dimensions and age is negative, but the largest effect size is small (Psychopathy; η2 =.018). Psychopathy is associated with low Social Position, and Narcissism with high Social Position. In regard to Personality traits, Narcissism is positively related to Extraversion, and Psychopathy is negatively related to Conscientiousness for the HEXACO, and Narcissism is positively related to Activity and Sensation Seeking, and Machiavellianism and Psychopathy are positively related to Aggressiveness and Sensation Seeking for the AFFM.
Disciplines :
Social & behavioral sciences, psychology: Multidisciplinary, general & others
Author, co-author :
Aluja, Anton ; Lleida Institute for Biomedical Research, IRBLleida. University of Lleida, Catalonia, Spain
García, Luis. F.; Autonomous University of Madrid, Spain
Rossier, Jérôme; University of Lausanne, Switzerland
Ostendorf, Fritz; University of Bielefeld, Germany
Glicksohn, Joseph; Bar-Ilan University, Israel
Oumar, Barry; University Cheikh Anta Diop, Senegal
Bellaj, Tarek; Qatar University, Qatar
Ruch, Willibald; University of Zurich, Switzerland
Wang, Wei; Zhejiang University School of Medicine, China ; Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou, China
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was funded by a grant from the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness (PID2019-103981RB-I00).We would like to thank Dr. Delroy L. Paulhus, Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4 Canada, coauthor of Short Dark Triad (SD3), by overseeing back translations of different SD3 languages and their comments on the study. We also want to thank Dr. Peter Karl Jonason of the Western Sydney University, School of Social Sciences and Psychology, Australia, for his advice and suggestions on the study. Both researchers are experts in Dark Triad traits construct. The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was funded by a grant from the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness (PID2019-103981RB-I00).
Aluja A. Blanch A. García L. F. García O. Escorial S. (2012). Zuckerman-Kuhlman-Aluja Personality Questionnaire as a predictor of MCMI-III personality disorder scales: The role of facets. Personality and Mental Health, 6, 217–227. https://doi.org/10.1002/pmh.1185
Aluja A. Escorial S. García L. F. García Ó. Blanch A. Zuckerman M. (2013). Reanalysis of Eysenck’s, Gray’s, and Zuckerman’s structural trait models based on a new measure: The Zuckerman–Kuhlman–Aluja Personality Questionnaire (ZKA-PQ). Personality and Individual Differences, 54, 192–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.08.030
Aluja A. Kuhlman M. Zuckerman M. (2010). Development of the Zuckerman-Kuhlman-Aluja personality questionnaire (ZKA-PQ): A factor/facet version of the Zuckerman-Kuhlman personality questionnaire (ZKPQ). Journal of Personality Assessment, 92, 416–431. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2010.497406
Aluja A. Lucas I. Blanch A. García O. García L. F. (2018). The Zuckerman-Kuhlman-Aluja Personality Questionnaire shortened form (ZKA-PQ/SF). Personality and Individual Differences, 134, 174–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.06.015
Aluja A. Rossier J. Oumar B. García L. F. Bellaj T. Ostendorf F. Ruch W. Wang W. Kövi Z. Ścigała D. Čekrlija Đ. Stivers A. W. Di Blas L. Valdivia M. Ben Jemaa S. Atitsogbe K. A. Hansenne M. Glicksohn J. (2020). Multicultural validation of the Zuckerman-Kuhlman-Aluja personality Questionnaire shortened form (ZKA-PQ/SF) across 18 countries. Assessment, 27, 728–748. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191119831770
Ashton M. Lee K. (2009). The HEXACO-60: A short measure of the major dimensions of personality. Journal of Personality Assessment, 91, 340–345. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223890902935878
Atitsogbe K. A. Hansenne M. Pari P. Rossier J. (2020). Normal personality, the dark triad, proactive attitude and perceived employability: A cross-cultural study in Belgium, Switzerland and Togo. Psychologica Belgica, 60, 217–235. https://doi.org/10.5334/pb.520
Blanch A. Aluja A. (2016). Text mining a self-report back-translation. Psychological Assessment, 28, 750–764. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000213
Browne M. W. Cudeck R. (1992). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. Sociological Methods & Research, 21, 230–258. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124192021002005
Bucher L. Tran U. S. Prinz G. M. Burgard T. Bosnjak M. Voracek M. (2020). Keeping meta-analyses alive and well: Using Psych Open CAMA to implement a community-augmented meta-analysis on the Dark Triad of personality. Leibniz Institut für Psychologische Information und Dokumentation (ZPID). https://doi.org/10.23668/PSYCHARCHIVES.2752
Buja A. Eyuboglu N. (1992). Remarks on parallel analysis. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 27(4), 509–540. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr2704_2
Canino G. Polanczyk G. Bauermeister J. J. Rohde L. A. Frick P. J. (2010). Does the prevalence of CD and ODD vary across cultures? Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 45, 695–704. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-010-0242-y
Coffman D. L. MacCallum R. C. (2005). Using parcels to convert path analysis models into latent variable models. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 40, 235–259. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr4002_4
Cohen J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Academic Press.
Cohen P. Chen H. Gordon K. Johnson J. Brook J. Kasen S. (2008). Socioeconomic background and the developmental course of schizotypal and borderline personality disorder symptoms. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 633–650. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095457940800031X
Compton W. M. Conway K. P. Stinson F. S. Colliver J. D. Grant B. F. (2005). Prevalence, correlates, and comorbidity of DSM-IV antisocial personality syndromes and alcohol and specific drug use disorders in the United States: Results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 66, 677–685. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v66n0602
Cooke D. J. (1996). Psychopathic personality in different cultures. What do we know? What do we need to find out? Journal of Personality Disorders, 10, 23–40. https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi.1996.10.1.23
Cooke D. J. Michie C. (1999). Psychopathy across cultures: North America and Scotland compared. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108, 58–68. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.108.1.58
DeShong H. L. Grant D. M. Mullins-Sweatt S. N. (2015). Comparing models of counterproductive workplace behaviors: The Five-Factor Model and the Dark Triad. Personality and Individual Differences, 74, 55–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.10.001
de Vries Y. A. Ten Have M. de Graaf R. van Dorsselaer S. de Ruiter N. M. P. de Jonge P. (2020). The relationship between mental disorders and actual and desired subjective social status. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 29, e83. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796019000805
Dinić B. M. Wertag A. Sokolovska V. Tomašević A. (2021). The good, the bad, and the ugly: Revisiting the Dark Core. Current Psychology. Advanced online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-01829-x
Erreygers G. (2013). A dual Atkinson measure of socioeconomic inequality of health. Health Economics, 22, 466–479. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.2820
Eysenck S. B. Eysenck H. J. Barrett P. (1985). A revised version of the psychoticism scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 6, 21–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(85)90026-1
Eysenck S. B. G. Eysenck H. J. (1977). The place of impulsiveness in a dimensional system of personality description. British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 16, 57–68. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8260.1977.tb01003.x
Fehr B. Samsom D. Paulhus D. L. (1992). The construct of Machiavellianism: Twenty years later. In Spielberger C. D. Butcher J. N. (Eds.), Advances in personality assessment (Vol. o1.9, pp. 77–116). Erlbaum.
Ferrando P. J. Lorenzo-Seva U. (2017). Program FACTOR at 10: Origins, development and future directions. Psicothema, 29(2), 236–240. https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2016.304
Foster J. D. Keith Campbell W. Twenge J. M. (2003). Individual differences in narcissism: Inflated self-views across the lifespan and around the world. Journal of Research in Personality, 37, 469–486. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0092-6566(03)00026-6
Furnham A. Richards S. C. Paulhus D. L. (2013). The Dark Triad of personality: A 10 Year Review. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7, 199–216. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12018
García L. F. Aluja A. Rossier J. Ostendorf F. Glicksohn J. Oumar B. Bellaj T. Ruch W. Wang W. Kövi Z. Ścigała D. Čekrlija Đ. Stivers A. W. Di Blas L. Valdivia M. Ben Jemaa S. Atitsogbe K. A. Hansenne M. (2021). Exploring the stability of HEXACO-60 structure and the association of gender, age, and social position with personality traits across 18 countries. Journal of Personality. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12664
Gómez-Leal R. Megías-Robles A. Gutiérrez-Cobo M. J. Cabello R. Fernández-Abascal E. G. Fernández-Berrocal P. (2019). Relationship between the Dark Triad and depressive symptoms. PeerJ, 7, e8120. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.8120
Grant K. E. Katz B. N. Thomas K. J. O’Koon J. H. Meza C. M. DiPasquale A. M. Rodriguez V. O. Bergen C. (2004). Psychological symptoms affecting low-income urban youth. Journal of Adolescent Research, 19, 613–634. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558403260014
Hare R. D. (1982). Psychopathy and the personality dimensions of psychoticism, extraversion and neuroticism. Personality and Individual Differences, 3, 35–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(82)90072-1
Hare R. D. (2003). Manual for the Revised Psychopathy Checklist (2nd ed.). Multi-Health Systems.
Hodson G. Book A. Visser B. A. Volk A. A. Ashton M. C. Lee K. (2018). Is the dark triad common factor distinct from low honesty-humility? Journal of Research in Personality, 73, 123–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2017.11.012
Hollingshead A. B. (1957). Two Factor Index of Social Position. Privately printed.
Hollingshead A. D. B. Redlich F. C. (1958). Social class and mental illness: A community study. John Wiley & Sons.
Horn J. L. (1965). A rationale and test for the number of factors in factor analysis. Psychometrika, 30, 179–185. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02289447
Jakobwitz S. Egan V. (2006). The dark triad and normal personality traits. Personality and Individual Differences, 40(2), 331–339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.07.006
Jauk E. Dieterich R. (2019). Addiction and the Dark Triad of Personality. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10, 662. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00662
Jonason P. K. Baughman H. M. Carter G. L. Parker P. (2015). Dorian Gray without his portrait: Psychological, social, and physical health costs associated with the Dark Triad. Personality and Individual Differences, 78, 5–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.01.008
Jonason P. K. Foster J. Oshio A. Sitnikova M. Birkas B. Gouveia V. (2017). Self-construals and the Dark Triad traits in six countries. Personality and Individual Differences, 113, 120–124.
Jonason P. K. Icho A. Ireland K. (2016). Resources, harshness, and unpredictability: the socioeconomic conditions associated with the Dark Triad traits. Evolutionary Psychology, 14, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474704915623699
Jonason P. K. Li N. P. Czarna A. Z. (2013). Quick and dirty: Some psychosocial costs associated with the Dark Triad in three countries. Evolutionary Psychology, 11, 172–185. https://doi.org/10.1177/147470491301100116
Jonason P. K. Webster G. D. (2010). The Dirty Dozen: A concise measure of the Dark Triad. Psychological Assessment, 22, 420–432. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019265
Jonason P. K. Żemojtel-Piotrowska M. Piotrowski J. Sedikides C. Campbell W. K. Gebauer J. E. Maltby J. Adamovic M. Adams B. G. Kadiyono A. L. Atitsogbe K. A. Bundhoo H. Y. Bălțătescu S. Bilić S. Brulin J. G. Chobthamkit P. Del Carmen Dominguez A. Dragova-Koleva S. El-Astal S. Yahiiaev I. (2020). Country-Level correlates of the dark triad traits in 49 countries. Journal of Personality, 88, 1252–1267. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12569
Jones D. N. Paulhus D. L. (2011). The role of impulsivity in the Dark Triad of personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 51, 679–682. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.04.011
Jones D. N. Paulhus D. L. (2014). Introducing the short dark triad (SD3): A brief measure of dark personality traits. Assessment, 21(1), 28–41. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191113514105
Kivimäki M. Batty G. D. Pentti J. Shipley M. J. Sipilä P. N. Nyberg S. T. Suominen S. B. Oksanen T. Stenholm S. Virtanen M. Marmot M. G. Singh-Manoux A. Brunner E. J. Lindbohm J. V. Ferrie J. E. Vahtera J. (2020). Association between socioeconomic status and the development of mental and physical health conditions in adulthood: A multi-cohort study. The Lancet Public Health, 5, e140–e149. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2468-2667(19)30248-8
Krendl A. C. Pescosolido B. A. (2020). Countries and cultural differences in the stigma of mental illness: The East–West divide. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 51, 149–167. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022119901297
Krick A. Tresp S. Vatter M. Ludwig A. Wihlenda M. Rettenberger M. (2016). The relationships between the dark triad, the moral judgment level, and the students’ disciplinary choice: Self-selection, indoctrination, or both? Journal of Individual Differences, 37, 24–30. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000184
Laajaj R. Macours K. Pinzon Hernandez D. A. Arias O. Gosling S. D. Potter J. Rubio-Codina M. Vakis R. (2019). Challenges to capture the big five personality traits in non-WEIRD populations. Science Advances, 5, eaaw5226. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaw5226
Lee K. Ashton M. C. (2005). Psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and narcissism in the Five-Factor Model and the HEXACO model of personality structure. Personality and Individual Differences, 38, 1571–1582. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2004.09.016
Lee K. Ashton M. C. (2014). The Dark Triad, the Big Five, and the HEXACO model. Personality and Individual Differences, 67, 2–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.01.048
Lee K. Ashton M. C. (2020). Sex differences in HEXACO personality characteristics across countries and ethnicities. Journal of Personality, 88, 1075–1090. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12551
Little T. D. Cunningham W. A. Shahar G. Widaman K. F. (2002). To parcel or not to parcel: Exploring the question, weighing the merits. Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal, 9, 151–173. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328007sem0902_1
Lorenzo-Seva U. Ten Berge J. M. F. (2006). Tucker’s congruence coefficient as a meaningful index of factor similarity. Methodology, 2(2), 57–64. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-2241.2.2.57
Marsh H. W. Lüdtke O. Nagengast B. Morin A. J. Von Davier M. (2013). Why item parcels are (almost) never appropriate: Two wrongs do not make a right–camouflaging misspecification with item parcels in CFA models. Psychological Methods, 18(3), 257–284. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032773
McCrae R. R. Zonderman A. B. Costa P. T. Bond M. H. Paunonen S. V. (1996). Evaluating replicability of factors in the Revised NEO Personality Inventory: Confirmatory factor analysis versus Procrustes rotation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(3), 552–566. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.552
Millsap R. E. (2011). Statistical approaches to measurement invariance. Routledge.
Muris P. Merckelbach H. Otgaar H. Meijer E. (2017). The malevolent side of human nature: A meta-analysis and critical review of the literature on the dark triad (narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy). Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12, 183–204. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691616666070
Muthén B. Kaplan D. (1985). A comparison of some methodologies for the factor analysis of non-normal Likert variables. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 38(2), 171–189. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8317.1985.tb00832.x
O’Boyle E. H. Forsyth D. R. Banks G. C. Story P. A. White C. D. (2015). A meta-analytic test of redundancy and relative importance of the dark triad and five-factor model of personality. Journal of Personality, 83, 644–664. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12126
Paris J. Lis E. (2013). Can sociocultural and historical mechanisms influence the development of borderline personality disorder? Transcultural Psychiatry, 50(1), 140–151. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461512468105
Paulhus D. L. Williams K. M. (2002). The dark triad of personality: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. Journal of Research in Personality, 36, 556–563. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0092-6566(02)00505-6
Persson B. N. Kajonius P. J. Garcia D. (2019). Revisiting the structure of the short dark triad. Assessment, 26, 3–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191117701192
Piff P. K. (2014). Wealth and the inflated self: Class, entitlement, and narcissism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 40, 34–43. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167213501699
Quon E. C. McGrath J. J. (2014). Subjective socioeconomic status and adolescent health: A meta-analysis. Health Psychology, 33, 433–447. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033716
Qureshi C. Harris E. Atkinson B. E. (2016). Relationships between age of females and attraction to the Dark Triad personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 95, 200–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.02.047
Reiss F. Meyrose A. K. Otto C. Lampert T. Klasen F. Ravens-Sieberer U. (2019). Socioeconomic status, stressful life situations and mental health problems in children and adolescents: Results of the German BELLA cohort-study. PLoS One, 14, e0213700. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0213700
Rogoza R. Cieciuch J. (2020). Dark Triad traits and their structure: An empirical approach. Current Psychology, 39, 1287–1302. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-018-9834-6
Rogoza R. Żemojtel-Piotrowska M. Jonason P. K. Piotrowski J. Campbell K. W. Gebauer J. Wlodarczyk A. (2021). Structure of Dark Triad Dirty Dozen across eight world regions. Assessment, 28(4), 1125–1135. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191120922611
Rossier J. Aluja A. Blanch A. Barry O. Hansenne M. Carvalho A. F. Valdivia M. Wang W. Desrichard O. Hyphantis T. Suranyi Z. Glicksohn J. De Pascalis V. León–Mayer E. Piskunov A. Stivers A. Morizot J. Ostendorf F. Čekrlija Đ. Karagonlar G. (2016). Cross–cultural Generalizability of the Alternative Five–factor Model Using the Zuckerman–Kuhlman–Aluja personality questionnaire. European Journal of Personality, 30, 139–157. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2045
Rossier J. Duarte M. E. (2019). Testing and assessment in an international context: Cross- and multi-cultural issues. In Athanasou J. Perera H. (Eds.), International handbook of career guidance (pp. 613–637). Springer.
Rossier J. Hansenne M. Baudin N. Morizot J. (2012). Zuckerman’s revised Alternative Five-Factor Model: Validation of the Zuckerman-Kuhlman-Aluja Personality Questionnaire in four French-speaking countries. Journal of Personality Assessment, 94(4), 358–365. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2012.657024
Rossier J. Ouedraogo A. Dahourou D. (2017). Personality structure and assessment in French-speaking African Cultures. In Church A. T. (Ed.), The Praeger handbook of personality across cultures (Vol. 1, pp. 73–103). Praeger Publisher.
Rossier J. Rigozzi C.; Personality Across Culture Research Group. (2008). Personality disorders and the Five-Factor Model among French speakers in Africa and Europe. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 53, 534–544. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674370805300808
Severance L. Bui-Wrzosinska L. Gelfand M. J. Lyons S. Nowak A. Borkowski W. Soomro N. Soomro N. Rafaeli A. Efrat Treister D. Lin C. C. Yamaguchi S. (2013). The psychological structure of aggression across cultures. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 34, 835–865. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1873
Thalmayer A. G. Rossier J. (2019). Agreeableness, antagonism, and mental health across cultures. In Miller J. D. Lynam D. R. (Eds.), The handbook of antagonism: Conceptualizations, assessment, consequences, and treatment of the low end of agreeableness (pp. 97–111). Academic Press.
Timmerman M. E. Lorenzo-Seva U. (2011). Dimensionality assessment of ordered polytomous items with parallel analysis. Psychological Methods, 16, 209–220. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023353
Torgersen S. Kringlen E. Cramer V. (2001). The prevalence of personality disorders in a community sample. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58, 590–596. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.58.6.590
Turner C. F. Martinez D. C. (1977). Socioeconomic achievement and the Machiavellian personality. Sociometry, 40, 325–336. https://doi.org/10.2307/3033481
Tyagi P. Ranga B. S. (2018). An examination of the correlation between socioeconomic status and mental health. International Journal of Management IT and Engineering, 8, 252–262.
Vernon P. A. Villani V. C. Vickers L. C. Harris J. A. (2008). A behavioral genetic investigation of the Dark Triad and the Big 5. Personality and Individual Differences, 44, 445–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.09.007
Vize C. E. Collison K. L. Miller J. D. Lynam D. R. (2018a). Examining the effects of controlling for shared variance among the Dark Triad Using Meta–Analytic Structural Equation Modelling. European Journal of Personality, 32, 46–61. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2137
Vize C. E. Collison K. L. Miller J. D. Lynam D. R. (2020). The “core” of the dark triad: A test of competing hypotheses. Personality Disorders Theory Research and Treatment, 11, 91–99. https://doi.org/10.1037/per0000386
Vize C. E. Lynam D. R. Collison K. L. Miller J. D. (2018). Differences among dark triad components: A meta-analytic investigation. Personality Disorders Theory Research and Treatment, 9, 101–111. https://doi.org/10.1037/per0000222
Walsh Z. Shea M. T. Yen S. Ansell E. B. Grilo C. M. McGlashan T. H. Stout R. L. Bender D. S. Skodol A. E. Sanislow C. A. Morey L. C. Gunderson J. G. (2013). Socioeconomic-status and mental health in a personality disorder sample: The importance of neighbourhood factors. Journal of Personality Disorders, 27, 820–831. https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi_2012_26_061
Watts A. L. Waldman I. D. Smith S. F. Poore H. E. Lilienfeld S. O. (2017). The nature and correlates of the Dark Triad: The answers depend on the questions. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126, 951–968. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000296
Welzel C. Brunkert L. Kruse S. Inglehart R. F. (2021). Non-invariance? An overstated problem with misconceived causes. Sociological Methods & Research. Advanced online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124121995521
Włodarska K. A. Zyskowska E. Terebus M. K. Rogoza R. (2021). The Dark Triad and BIS/BAS: A meta-analysis. Current Psychology, 40, 5349–5357. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00467-8
Zuckerman M. Glicksohn J. (2016). Hans Eysenck’s personality model and the constructs of sensation seeking and impulsivity. Personality and Individual Differences, 103, 48–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.04.003
