Earth-Surface Processes; Water Science and Technology
Abstract :
[en] Abstract. Surface mass loss from the Greenland ice sheet (GrIS) has
accelerated over the past decades, mainly due to enhanced surface melting
and liquid water runoff in response to atmospheric warming. A large portion
of runoff from the GrIS originates from exposure of the darker bare ice in
the ablation zone when the overlying snow melts, where surface albedo plays
a critical role in modulating the energy available for melting. In this
regard, it is imperative to understand the processes governing albedo
variability to accurately project future mass loss from the GrIS. Bare-ice
albedo is spatially and temporally variable and contingent on non-linear
feedbacks and the presence of light-absorbing constituents. An assessment of
models aiming at simulating albedo variability and associated impacts on
meltwater production is crucial for improving our understanding of the
processes governing these feedbacks and, in turn, surface mass loss from
Greenland. Here, we report the results of a comparison of the bare-ice
extent and albedo simulated by the regional climate model Modèle
Atmosphérique Régional (MAR) with satellite imagery from the
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) for the GrIS below
70∘ N. Our findings suggest that MAR overestimates bare-ice albedo
by 22.8 % on average in this area during the 2000–2021 period with respect
to the estimates obtained from MODIS. Using an energy balance model to
parameterize meltwater production, we find this bare-ice albedo bias can
lead to an underestimation of total meltwater production from the bare-ice
zone below 70∘ N of 42.8 % during the summers of 2000–2021.
Research center :
SPHERES - ULiège
Disciplines :
Earth sciences & physical geography
Author, co-author :
Antwerpen, Raf M.
Tedesco, Marco
Fettweis, Xavier ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département de géographie > Climatologie et Topoclimatologie
Alexander, Patrick
van de Berg, Willem Jan
Language :
English
Title :
Assessing bare-ice albedo simulated by MAR over the Greenland ice sheet (2000–2021) and implications for meltwater production estimates
Publication date :
11 October 2022
Journal title :
The Cryosphere
ISSN :
1994-0416
eISSN :
1994-0424
Publisher :
Copernicus GmbH
Volume :
16
Issue :
10
Pages :
4185-4199
Peer reviewed :
Peer Reviewed verified by ORBi
Tags :
CÉCI : Consortium des Équipements de Calcul Intensif Tier-1 supercomputer
Alexander, P. M., Tedesco, M., Fettweis, X., van de Wal, R. S. W., Smeets, C. J. P. P., and van den Broeke, M. R.: Assessing spatiotemporal variability and trends in modelled and measured Greenland Ice Sheet albedo (2000-2013), The Cryosphere, 8, 2293-2312, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-2293-2014, 2014.
Alexander, P. M., Tedesco, M., Koenig, L., and Fettweis, X.: Evaluating a Regional Climate Model Simulation of Greenland Ice Sheet Snow and Firn Density for Improved Surface Mass Balance Estimates, Geophys. Res. Lett., 46, 12073-12082, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL084101, 2019.
Aschwanden, A., Fahnestock, M. A., Truffer, M., Brinkerhoff, D. J., Hock, R., Khroulev, C., Mottram, R., and Khan, S. A.: Contribution of the Greenland Ice Sheet to sea level over the next millennium, Sci. Adv., 5, eaav9396, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aav9396, 2019.
Box, J. E., Fettweis, X., Stroeve, J. C., Tedesco, M., Hall, D. K., and Steffen, K.: Greenland ice sheet albedo feedback: thermodynamics and atmospheric drivers, The Cryosphere, 6, 821-839, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-6-821-2012, 2012.
Box, J. E.: Greenland Ice Sheet Mass Balance Reconstruction. Part II: Surface Mass Balance (1840-2010), J. Clim., 26, 6974-6989, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00518.1, 2013.
Brun, E., David, P., Sudul, M., and Brunot, G.: A numerical model to simulate snow-cover stratigraphy for operational avalanche forecasting, J. Glaciol., 38, 13-22, https://doi.org/10.3189/S0022143000009552, 1992.
Chen, X., Zhang, X., Church, J. A., Watson, C. S., King, M. A., Monselesan, D., Legresy, B., and Harig, C.: The increasing rate of global mean sea-level rise during 1993-2014, Nat. Clim. Change, 7, 492-495, https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate3325, 2017.
Cook, J. M., Edwards, A., Bulling, M., Mur, L. A. J., Cook, S., Gokul, J. K., Cameron, K. A., Sweet, M., and Irvine-Fynn, T. D. L.: Metabolome-mediated biocryomorphic evolution promotes carbon fixation in Greenlandic cryoconite holes: Biocryomorphic evolution of cryoconite holes, Environ. Microbiol., 18, 4674-4686, https://doi.org/10.1111/1462-2920.13349, 2016.
Cook, J. M., Tedstone, A. J., Williamson, C., McCutcheon, J., Hodson, A. J., Dayal, A., Skiles, M., Hofer, S., Bryant, R., McAree, O., McGonigle, A., Ryan, J., Anesio, A. M., Irvine-Fynn, T. D. L., Hubbard, A., Hanna, E., Flanner, M., Mayanna, S., Benning, L. G., van As, D., Yallop, M., McQuaid, J. B., Gribbin, T., and Tranter, M.: Glacier algae accelerate melt rates on the south-western Greenland Ice Sheet, The Cryosphere, 14, 309-330, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-309-2020, 2020.
Doherty, S. J., Grenfell, T. C., Forsström, S., Hegg, D. L., Brandt, R. E., and Warren, S. G.: Observed vertical redistribution of black carbon and other insoluble light-absorbing particles in melting snow: MELT REDISTRIBUTION OF BC IN SNOW, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 118, 5553-5569, https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrd.50235, 2013.
Fettweis, X., Hanna, E., Lang, C., Belleflamme, A., Erpicum, M., and Gallée, H.: Brief communication "Important role of the midtropospheric atmospheric circulation in the recent surface melt increase over the Greenland ice sheet", The Cryosphere, 7, 241-248, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-241-2013, 2013.
Fettweis, X., Box, J. E., Agosta, C., Amory, C., Kittel, C., Lang, C., van As, D., Machguth, H., and Gallée, H.: Reconstructions of the 1900-2015 Greenland ice sheet surface mass balance using the regional climate MAR model, The Cryosphere, 11, 1015-1033, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1015-2017, 2017.
Fettweis, X., Hofer, S., Krebs-Kanzow, U., Amory, C., Aoki, T., Berends, C. J., Born, A., Box, J. E., Delhasse, A., Fujita, K., Gierz, P., Goelzer, H., Hanna, E., Hashimoto, A., Huybrechts, P., Kapsch, M.-L., King, M. D., Kittel, C., Lang, C., Langen, P. L., Lenaerts, J. T. M., Liston, G. E., Lohmann, G., Mernild, S. H., Mikolajewicz, U., Modali, K., Mottram, R. H., Niwano, M., Noël, B., Ryan, J. C., Smith, A., Streffing, J., Tedesco, M., van de Berg, W. J., van den Broeke, M., van de Wal, R. S. W., van Kampenhout, L., Wilton, D., Wouters, B., Ziemen, F., and Zolles, T.: GrSMBMIP: intercomparison of the modelled 1980-2012 surface mass balance over the Greenland Ice Sheet, The Cryosphere, 14, 3935-3958, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-3935-2020, 2020.
Fettweis, X., Hofer, S., Séférian, R., Amory, C., Delhasse, A., Doutreloup, S., Kittel, C., Lang, C., Van Bever, J., Veillon, F., and Irvine, P.: Brief communication: Reduction in the future Greenland ice sheet surface melt with the help of solar geoengineering, The Cryosphere, 15, 3013-3019, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3013-2021, 2021.
Fox-Kemper, B., Hewitt, H. T., Xiao, C., Aoalgeirsdóttir, G., Drijfhout, S. S., Edwards, T. L., Golledge, N. R., Hemer, M., Kopp, R. E., Krinner, G., Mix, A., Notz, D., Nowicki, S., Nurhati, I. S., Ruiz, L., Sallée, J.-B., Slangen, A. B. A., and Yu, Y.: Ocean, Cryosphere and Sea Level Change, in: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis, Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by: Masson Delmotte, V., Zhai, P., Pirani, A., Connors, S. L., Péan, C., Berger, S., Caud, N., Chen, Y., Goldfarb, L., Gomis, M. I., Huang, M., Leitzell, K., Lonnoy, E., Matthews, J. B. R., Maycock, T. K., Waterfield, T., Yelekçi, O., Yu, R., and Zhou, B., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1211-1362, 2021.
Gallée, H.: Air-sea interactions over Terra Nova Bay during winter: Simulation with a coupled atmosphere-polynya model, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 102, 13835-13849, https://doi.org/10.1029/96JD03098, 1997.
Gallée, H. and Schayes, G.: Development of a Three-Dimensional Meso-Primitive Equation Model: Katabatic Winds Simulation in the Area of Terra Nova Bay, Antarctica, Mon. Weather Rev., 122, 671-685, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1994)122<0671:DOATDM>2.0.CO;2, 1994.
GDAL/OGR contributors, GDAL/OGR Geospatial Data Abstraction software Library, https://gdal.org (last access: 28 October 2021), 2020.
Goelles, T. and Bøggild, C. E.: Albedo reduction of ice caused by dust and black carbon accumulation: a model applied to the K-transect, West Greenland, J. Glaciol., 63, 1063-1076, https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2017.74, 2017.
Gorelick, N., Hancher, M., Dixon, M., Ilyushchenko, S., Thau, D., and Moore, R.: Google Earth Engine: Planetary-scale geospatial analysis for everyone, Remote Sensing of Environment, https://earthengine.google.com (last access: 28 October 2021), 2017.
Hall, D. K., Salomonson, V. V., and Riggs, G. A.: MODIS-/Terra Snow Cover Daily L3 Global 500m Grid. Version 6, Boulder, Colorado USA: NASA National Snow and Ice Data Center Distributed Active Archive Center [data set], https://doi.org/10.5067/MODIS/MOD10A1.006, 2016.
Hanna, E., Mernild, S. H., Cappelen, J., and Steffen, K.: Recent warming in Greenland in a long-term instrumental (1881-2012) climatic context: I. Evaluation of surface air temperature records, Environ. Res. Lett., 7, 045404, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/7/4/045404, 2012.
Hanna, E., Fettweis, X., Mernild, S. H., Cappelen, J., Ribergaard, M. H., Shuman, C. A., Steffen, K., Wood, L., and Mote, T. L.: Atmospheric and oceanic climate forcing of the exceptional Greenland ice sheet surface melt in summer 2012: CLIMATE FORCING OF 2012 GREENLAND ICE MELT, Int. J. Climatol., 34, 1022-1037, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.3743, 2014.
Hanna, E., Fettweis, X., and Hall, R. J.: Brief communication: Recent changes in summer Greenland blocking captured by none of the CMIP5 models, The Cryosphere, 12, 3287-3292, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-3287-2018, 2018.
Helm, V., Humbert, A., and Miller, H.: Elevation and elevation change of Greenland and Antarctica derived from CryoSat-2, The Cryosphere, 8, 1539-1559, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-1539-2014, 2014.
Hersbach, H., Bell, B., Berrisford, P., Hirahara, S., Horányi, A., Muñoz-Sabater, J., Nicolas, J., Peubey, C., Radu, R., Schepers, D., Simmons, A., Soci, C., Abdalla, S., Abellan, X., Balsamo, G., Bechtold, P., Biavati, G., Bidlot, J., Bonavita, M., De Chiara, G., Dahlgren, P., Dee, D., Diamantakis, M., Dragani, R., Flemming, J., Forbes, R., Fuentes, M., Geer, A., Haimberger, L., Healy, S., Hogan, R. J., Hólm, E., Janisková, M., Keeley, S., Laloyaux, P., Lopez, P., Lupu, C., Radnoti, G., de Rosnay, P., Rozum, I., Vamborg, F., Villaume, S., and Thépaut, J.-N.: The ERA5 global reanalysis, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 146, 1999-2049, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3803, 2020.
Howat, I. M., Negrete, A., and Smith, B. E.: The Greenland Ice Mapping Project (GIMP) land classification and surface elevation data sets, The Cryosphere, 8, 1509-1518, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-1509-2014, 2014.
Lefebre, F.: Modeling of snow and ice melt at ETH Camp (West Greenland): A study of surface albedo, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4231, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001JD001160, 2003.
Lesnek, A. J., Briner, J. P., Young, N. E., and Cuzzone, J. K.: Maximum Southwest Greenland Ice Sheet Recession in the Early Holocene, Geophys. Res. Lett., 47, 1-11, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL083164, 2020.
Liang, S. and Wang, J.: Broadband albedo, in: Advanced Remote Sensing, Elsevier, 193-250, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815826-5.00006-4, 2020.
MacGregor, J. A., Fahnestock, M. A., Colgan, W. T., Larsen, N. K., Kjeldsen, K. K., and Welker, J. M.: The age of surface-exposed ice along the northern margin of the Greenland Ice Sheet, J. Glaciol., 66, 667-684, https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2020.62, 2020.
MAR model: MAR [code], https://www.mar.cnrs.fr, last access: 28 October 2021.
Martos, Y. M., Jordan, T. A., Catalán, M., Jordan, T. M., Bamber, J. L., and Vaughan, D. G.: Geothermal Heat Flux Reveals the Iceland Hotspot Track Underneath Greenland, Geophys. Res. Lett., 45, 8214-8222, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GL078289, 2018.
McCutcheon, J., Lutz, S., Williamson, C., Cook, J. M., Tedstone, A. J., Vanderstraeten, A., Wilson, S. A., Stockdale, A., Bonneville, S., Anesio, A. M., Yallop, M. L., McQuaid, J. B., Tranter, M., and Benning, L. G.: Mineral phosphorus drives glacier algal blooms on the Greenland Ice Sheet, Nat. Commun., 12, 570, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-20627-w, 2021.
McLeod, J. T. and Mote, T. L.: Linking interannual variability in extreme Greenland blocking episodes to the recent increase in summer melting across the Greenland ice sheet: EXTREME GREENLAND BLOCKING AND SUMMER MELTING ACROSS THE GREENLAND ICE SHEET, Int. J. Climatol., 36, 1484-1499, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.4440, 2016.
Mouginot, J., Rignot, E., Bjørk, A. A., van den Broeke, M., Millan, R., Morlighem, M., Noël, B., Scheuchl, B., and Wood, M.: Forty-six years of Greenland Ice Sheet mass balance from 1972 to 2018, P. Natl. Acad. Sci., 116, 9239-9244, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1904242116, 2019.
Noël, B., van de Berg, W. J., Lhermitte, S., and van den Broeke, M. R.: Rapid ablation zone expansion amplifies north Greenland mass loss, Sci. Adv., 5, eaaw0123, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaw0123, 2019.
Pellicciotti, F., Helbing, J., Rivera, A., Favier, V., Corripio, J., Araos, J., Sicart, J.-E., and Carenzo, M.: A study of the energy balance and melt regime on Juncal Norte Glacier, semi-arid Andes of central Chile, using melt models of different complexity, Hydrol. Process., 22, 3980-3997, https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.7085, 2008.
Riahi, K., van Vuuren, D. P., Kriegler, E., Edmonds, J., O'Neill, B. C., Fujimori, S., Bauer, N., Calvin, K., Dellink, R., Fricko, O., Lutz, W., Popp, A., Cuaresma, J. C., Kc, S., Leimbach, M., Jiang, L., Kram, T., Rao, S., Emmerling, J., Ebi, K., Hasegawa, T., Havlik, P., Humpenöder, F., Da Silva, L. A., Smith, S., Stehfest, E., Bosetti, V., Eom, J., Gernaat, D., Masui, T., Rogelj, J., Strefler, J., Drouet, L., Krey, V., Luderer, G., Harmsen, M., Takahashi, K., Baumstark, L., Doelman, J. C., Kainuma, M., Klimont, Z., Marangoni, G., Lotze-Campen, H., Obersteiner, M., Tabeau, A., and Tavoni, M.: The Shared Socioeconomic Pathways and their energy, land use, and greenhouse gas emissions implications: An overview, Glob. Environ. Change, 42, 153-168, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2016.05.009, 2017.
Ridder, K. D. and Schayes, G.: The IAGL Land Surface Model, J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol., 36, 167-182, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1997)036<0167:TILSM>2.0.CO;2, 1997.
Ryan, J. C., Hubbard, A., Stibal, M., Irvine-Fynn, T. D., Cook, J., Smith, L. C., Cameron, K., and Box, J.: Dark zone of the Greenland Ice Sheet controlled by distributed biologically-active impurities, Nat. Commun., 9, 1065, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-03353-2, 2018.
Ryan, J. C., Smith, L. C., van As, D., Cooley, S. W., Cooper, M. G., Pitcher, L. H., and Hubbard, A.: Greenland Ice Sheet surface melt amplified by snowline migration and bare ice exposure, Sci. Adv., 5, eaav3738, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aav3738, 2019.
Shimada, R., Takeuchi, N., and Aoki, T.: Inter-Annual and Geographical Variations in the Extent of Bare Ice and Dark Ice on the Greenland Ice Sheet Derived from MODIS Satellite Images, Front. Earth Sci., 4, 1-10, https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2016.00043, 2016.
Steger, C. R., Reijmer, C. H., and van den Broeke, M. R.: The modelled liquid water balance of the Greenland Ice Sheet, The Cryosphere, 11, 2507-2526, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2507-2017, 2017.
Stibal, M., Box, J. E., Cameron, K. A., Langen, P. L., Yallop, M. L., Mottram, R. H., Khan, A. L., Molotch, N. P., Chrismas, N. A. M., Calì Quaglia, F., Remias, D., Smeets, C. J. P. P., Broeke, M. R., Ryan, J. C., Hubbard, A., Tranter, M., As, D., and Ahlstrøm, A. P.: Algae Drive Enhanced Darkening of Bare Ice on the Greenland Ice Sheet, Geophys. Res. Lett., 44, 11463-11471, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL075958, 2017.
Tedesco, M. and Fettweis, X.: Unprecedented atmospheric conditions (1948-2019) drive the 2019 exceptional melting season over the Greenland ice sheet, The Cryosphere, 14, 1209-1223, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-1209-2020, 2020.
Tedesco, M., Serreze, M., and Fettweis, X.: Diagnosing the extreme surface melt event over southwestern Greenland in 2007, The Cryosphere, 2, 159-166, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-2-159-2008, 2008.
Tedesco, M., Fettweis, X., van den Broeke, M. R., van de Wal, R. S. W., Smeets, C. J. P. P., van de Berg, W. J., Serreze, M. C., and Box, J. E.: The role of albedo and accumulation in the 2010 melting record in Greenland, Environ. Res. Lett., 6, 014005, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/6/1/014005, 2011.
Tedesco, M., Mote, T., Fettweis, X., Hanna, E., Jeyaratnam, J., Booth, J. F., Datta, R., and Briggs, K.: Arctic cut-off high drives the poleward shift of a new Greenland melting record, Nat. Commun., 7, 11723, https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms11723, 2016a.
Tedesco, M., Doherty, S., Fettweis, X., Alexander, P., Jeyaratnam, J., and Stroeve, J.: The darkening of the Greenland ice sheet: trends, drivers, and projections (1981-2100), The Cryosphere, 10, 477-496, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-477-2016, 2016b.
Tedstone, A. J., Bamber, J. L., Cook, J. M., Williamson, C. J., Fettweis, X., Hodson, A. J., and Tranter, M.: Dark ice dynamics of the south-west Greenland Ice Sheet, The Cryosphere, 11, 2491-2506, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-2491-2017, 2017.
Tedstone, A. J., Cook, J. M., Williamson, C. J., Hofer, S., McCutcheon, J., Irvine-Fynn, T., Gribbin, T., and Tranter, M.: Algal growth and weathering crust state drive variability in western Greenland Ice Sheet ice albedo, The Cryosphere, 14, 521-538, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-521-2020, 2020.
van Angelen, J. H., Lenaerts, J. T. M., Lhermitte, S., Fettweis, X., Kuipers Munneke, P., van den Broeke, M. R., van Meijgaard, E., and Smeets, C. J. P. P.: Sensitivity of Greenland Ice Sheet surface mass balance to surface albedo parameterization: a study with a regional climate model, The Cryosphere, 6, 1175-1186, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-6-1175-2012, 2012.
van den Broeke, M. R., Enderlin, E. M., Howat, I. M., Kuipers Munneke, P., Noël, B. P. Y., van de Berg, W. J., van Meijgaard, E., and Wouters, B.: On the recent contribution of the Greenland ice sheet to sea level change, The Cryosphere, 10, 1933-1946, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1933-2016, 2016.
van den Broeke, M., Box, J., Fettweis, X., Hanna, E., Noël, B., Tedesco, M., van As, D., van de Berg, W. J., and van Kampenhout, L.: Greenland Ice Sheet Surface Mass Loss: Recent Developments in Observation and Modeling, Curr. Clim. Change Rep., 3, 345-356, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40641-017-0084-8, 2017.
Vermote, E., and Wolfe, R.: MOD09GA MODIS/Terra Surface Reflectance Daily L2G Global 1km and 500m SIN Grid V006, NASA EOSDIS Land Processes DAAC [data set], https://doi.org/10.5067/MODIS/MOD09GA.006, 2015.
Wang, S., Tedesco, M., Xu, M., and Alexander, P. M.: Mapping Ice Algal Blooms in Southwest Greenland From Space, Geophys. Res. Lett., 45, 11779-11788, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GL080455, 2018.
Wang, S., Tedesco, M., Alexander, P., Xu, M., and Fettweis, X.: Quantifying spatiotemporal variability of glacier algal blooms and the impact on surface albedo in southwestern Greenland, The Cryosphere, 14, 2687-2713, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-14-2687-2020, 2020.
Warren, S. G., Brandt, R. E., and Grenfell, T. C.: Visible and near-ultraviolet absorption spectrum of ice from transmission of solar radiation into snow, Appl. Opt., 45, 5320, https://doi.org/10.1364/AO.45.005320, 2006.
Wehrlé, A., Box, J. E., Niwano, M., Anesio, A. M., and Fausto, R. S.: Greenland bare-ice albedo from PROMICE automatic weather station measurements and Sentinel-3 satellite observations, GEUS Bull., 47, 1-9, https://doi.org/10.34194/geusb.v47.5284, 2021.
Whicker, C. A., Flanner, M. G., Dang, C., Zender, C. S., Cook, J. M., and Gardner, A. S.: SNICAR-ADv4: a physically based radiative transfer model to represent the spectral albedo of glacier ice, The Cryosphere, 16, 1197-1220, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1197-2022, 2022.
Wientjes, I. G. M., Van De Wal, R. S. W., Schwikowski, M., Zapf, A., Fahrni, S., and Wacker, L.: Carbonaceous particles reveal that Late Holocene dust causes the dark region in the western ablation zone of the Greenland ice sheet, J. Glaciol., 58, 787-794, https://doi.org/10.3189/2012JoG11J165, 2012.
Wilks, D. S.: Forecast Verification, in: International Geophysics, vol. 100, Elsevier, 301-394, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-385022-5.00008-7, 2011.
Williamson, C. J., Anesio, A. M., Cook, J., Tedstone, A., Poniecka, E., Holland, A., Fagan, D., Tranter, M., and Yallop, M. L.: Ice algal bloom development on the surface of the Greenland Ice Sheet, FEMS Microbiol. Ecol., 94, https://doi.org/10.1093/femsec/fiy025, 2018.
Williamson, C. J., Cook, J., Tedstone, A., Yallop, M., McCutcheon, J., Poniecka, E., Campbell, D., Irvine-Fynn, T., McQuaid, J., Tranter, M., Perkins, R., and Anesio, A.: Algal photophysiology drives darkening and melt of the Greenland Ice Sheet, P. Natl. Acad. Sci., 117, 5694-5705, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1918412117, 2020.
Wiscombe, W. J. and Warren, S. G.: A model for the spectral albedo of snow. I: Pure Snow, J. Atmos. Sci., 37, 2712-2733, 1980.
Young, N. E., Lesnek, A. J., Cuzzone, J. K., Briner, J. P., Badgeley, J. A., Balter-Kennedy, A., Graham, B. L., Cluett, A., Lamp, J. L., Schwartz, R., Tuna, T., Bard, E., Caffee, M. W., Zimmerman, S. R. H., and Schaefer, J. M.: In situ cosmogenic 10Be-14C-26Al measurements from recently deglaciated bedrock as a new tool to decipher changes in Greenland Ice Sheet size, Clim. Past, 17, 419-450, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-17-419-2021, 2021.