[en] Background: This study took place in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. The present research assesses the association between lockdown conditions (such as time spent at home, living environment, proximity to contamination and social contacts), mental health (including intolerance of uncertainty, anxiety and depression) and intimate partner violence within the community. This study evaluates the indirect effect of anxiety and depression on the relationship between intolerance of uncertainty and intimate partner violence (physical assault and psychological aggression).
Methods: 1532 adults (80.8% of women, Mage = 35.34) were recruited from the Belgian general population through an online self-report questionnaire completed during the lockdown (from April 17 to 1 May 2020 ). Results : The results demonstrate that the prevalence of physical assault (including both perpetration and victimization) was significantly higher in men, whereas the prevalence of psychological aggression was significantly higher in women. Men reported significantly more violence during lockdown. Women, on the other hand, were more anxious and more intolerant of uncertainty. No
difference between men and women was found for depression. Anxiety and depression significantly mediated the relationship between intolerance of uncertainty and physical assault and psychological aggression. Sex did not moderate the mediation. Conclusion: Clinical implications for public health policy are highlighted
Disciplines :
Treatment & clinical psychology
Author, co-author :
Glowacz, Fabienne ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département de Psychologie ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Adaptation, Résilience et CHangement (ARCH)
Dziewa, Amandine ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Adaptation, Résilience et CHangement (ARCH) ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département de Psychologie > Psychologie de la délinquance,des inadaptations sociales et des processus d'insertion
Schmits, Emilie ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Adaptation, Résilience et CHangement (ARCH) ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département de Psychologie > Psychologie de la délinquance,des inadaptations sociales et des processus d'insertion
Language :
English
Title :
Intimate Partner Violence and Mental Health during Lockdown of the COVID-19 Pandemic
Alternative titles :
[fr] Violences entre Partenaires intimes et santé mentale pendant le confinement de la crise Covid 19
Publication date :
22 February 2022
Journal title :
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
ISSN :
1660-4601
eISSN :
1661-7827
Publisher :
Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI), Basel, Switzerland
World Health Organization. Understanding and Addressing Violence against Women. 2012. Available online: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/77432/1/WHO_RHR_12.36_eng.pdf (accessed on 23 July 2020).
Carleton, R.N.; Mulvogue, M.K.; Thibodeau, M.A.; McCabe, R.E.; Antony, M.M.; Asmundson, G.J. Increasingly certain about uncertainty: Intolerance of uncertainty across anxiety and depression. J. Anxiety Disord. 2012, 26, 468–479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2012.01.011.
Freeston, M.; Tiplady, A.; Mawn, L.; Bottesi, G.; Thwaites, S. Towards a model of uncertainty distress in the context of Corona-virus (COVID-19). Cogn. Behav. Ther. 2020, 13, 1–32. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1754470x2000029x.
Mertens, G.; Gerritsen, L.; Duijndam, S.; Salemink, E.; Engelhard, I.M. Fear of the coronavirus (COVID-19): Predictors in an online study conducted in March 2020. J. Anxiety Disord. 2020, 74, 102258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102258.
Sankar, R.; Robinson, L.; Honey, E.; Freeston, F. ‘We know intolerance of uncertainty is a transdiagnostic factor but we don’t know what it looks like in everyday life’: A systematic review of intolerance of uncertainty behaviors. In Clinical Psychology Forum, 296th ed.; The British Psychological Society: Leicester, UK; Newcastle University: Newcastle upon Tyne, UK, 2017. Available online: https://shop.bps.org.uk/clinical-psychology-forum-no-296-august-2017 (accessed on 23 July 2020).
Sim, K.; Chua, H.C. The psychological impact of SARS: A matter of heart and mind. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 2004, 170, 811–812. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.1032003.
Brooks, S.K.; Webster, R.K.; Smith, L.E.; Woodland, L.; Wessely, S.; Greenberg, N.; Rubin, G.J. The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: Rapid review of the evidence. Lancet 2020, 395, 912–920. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(20)30460-8.
Hossain, M.M.; Sultana, A.; Purohit, N. Mental health outcomes of quarantine and isolation for infection prevention: A systematic umbrella review of the global evidence. Epidemiol. Health 2020, 42, e2020038. https://doi.org/10.4178/epih.e2020038.
Glowacz, F.; Schmits, E. Psychological distress during the COVID-19 lockdown: The young adults most at risk. Psychiatry Res. 2020, 293, 113486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113486.
Sharma, A.; Pillai, D.R.; Lu, M.; Doolan, C.; Leal, J.; Kim, J.; Hollis, A. Impact of isolation precautions on quality of life: A meta-analysis. J. Hosp. Infect. 2020, 105, 35–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2020.02.004.
Cao, W.; Fang, Z.; Hou, G.; Han, M.; Xu, X.; Dong, J.; Zheng, J. The psychological impact of the COVID-19 epidemic on college students in China. Psychiatry Res. 2020, 287, 112934. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.112934.
Zhang, S.X.; Wang, Y.; Rauch, A.; Wei, F. Health, distress and life satisfaction of people in China one month into the COVID-19 outbreak. Psychiatry Res. 2020, 288, 112958. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3555216.
Schmits, E.; Dekeyser, S.; Klein, O.; Luminet, O.; Yzerbyt, V.; Glowacz, F. Psychological distress among students in higher education one year after the beginning of COVID-19 pandemic. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7445. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18147445.
Lorant, V.; Smith, P.; Van den Broeck, K.; Nicaise, P. Psychological distress associated with the COVID-19 pandemic and sup-pression measures during the first wave in Belgium. BMC Psychiatry 2021, 21, 112. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03109-1.
Lee, S.J.; Ward, K.P.; Rodriguez, C.M. Longitudinal Analysis of Short-term Changes in Relationship Conflict during COVID-19: A Risk and Resilience Perspective. J. Interpers. Violence 2021, 08862605211006359. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211006359.
Campbell, A.M. An increasing risk of family violence during the Covid-19 pandemic: Strengthening community collaborations to save lives. Forensic Sci. Int. Rep. 2020, 2, 100089. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsir.2020.100089.
Kaukinen, C. When Stay-at-Home Orders Leave Victims Unsafe at Home: Exploring the Risk and Consequences of Intimate Partner Violence during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Am. J. Crim. Justice 2020, 45, 668–679. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09533-5.
Bradbury‐Jones, C.; Isham, L. The pandemic paradox: The consequences of COVID‐19 on domestic violence. J. Clin. Nurs. 2020, 29, 2047–2049. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocn.15296.
Mazza, M.; Marano, G.; Lai, C.; Janiri, L.; Sani, G. Danger in danger: Interpersonal violence during COVID-19 quarantine. Psychiatry Res. 2020, 289, 113046. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113046.
Conseil Bruxellois de L’égalité entre les Femmes et les Hommes Région Bruxelles-Capitale. L’impact Du COVID-19 Sur Les Iné-galités Entre Les Femmes et Les Hommes. 19 Chiffres Chocs, 19 Recommandations Phares Pour Bruxelles. In Demain ne Peut Être Pire Qu’hier Pour L’égalité; Conseil Bruxellois de l’Égalité Entre les Femmes et les Hommes: Bruxelles, Belgium, 2021. Available online: http://www.adviesraad-gelijke-kansen.irisnet.be/fr/publications/communiques-de-presse/(accessed on 20 July 2021).
van Gelder, N.; Peterman, A.; Potts, A.; O’Donnell, M.; Thompson, K.; Shah, N.; Oertelt-Prigione, S. COVID-19: Reducing the risk of infection might increase the risk of intimate partner violence. EClinicalMedicine 2020, 21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2020.100348.
Guenfound, I. French Women Use Code Words at Pharmacies to Escape Domestic Violence during Coronavirus Lockdown. ABC News. 2020. Available online: https://abcnews.go.com/International/french-women-code-words-pharmacies-escape-do-mestic-violence/story?id=69954238 (accessed on 20 July 2020).
Davies, S.; Batha, E. FEATURE-Europe Braces for Domestic Abuse “Perfect Storm” Amid Coronavirus Lockdown. Thomson Reuters Foundation News. 26 March 2020. Available online: https://news.trust.org/item/20200326160316-7l0uf (accessed on 20 July 2020).
Usher, K.; Bhullar, N.; Durkin, J.; Gyamfi, N.; Jackson, D. Family violence and COVID‐19: Increased vulnerability and reduced options for support. Int. J. Ment. Health Nurs. 2020, 29, 549–552. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12735.
McLay, M.M. When “Shelter-in-Place” Isn’t Shelter That’s Safe: A Rapid Analysis of Domestic Violence Case Differences During the COVID-19 Pandemic and Stay-at-Home Orders. medRXiv 2020. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.05.29.20117366.
Hamadani, J.D.; Hasan, M.I.; Baldi, A.J.; Hossain, S.J.; Shiraji, S.; Bhuiyan, M.S.A.; Mehrin, S.F.; Fisher, J.; Tofail, F.; Tipu, S.M.M.U.; et al. Immediate impact of stay-at-home orders to control COVID-19 transmission on socioeconomic conditions, food insecurity, mental health, and intimate partner violence in Bangladeshi women and their families: An interrupted time series. Lancet Glob. Health 2020, 8, e1380–e1389. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2214-109x(20)30366-1.
Piquero, A. R.; Jennings, W. G.; Jemison, E., Kaukinen, C.; Knaul, F. M. Domestic violence during the COVID-19 pandemic-Evidence from a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Crim. Justice 2021, 74, 101806. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2021.101806
Cannon, C.E.B.; Ferreira, R.; Buttell, F.; First, J. COVID-19, Intimate Partner Violence, and Communication Ecologies. Am. Behav. Sci. 2021, 65, 992–1013. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764221992826.
Bonnet, F. Violences conjugales, genre et criminalisation: Synthèse des débats américains. Rev. Française Sociol. 2015, 56, 357– 383. https://doi.org/10.3917/rfs.562.0357.
Ali, P.A.; Dhingra, K.; McGarry, J. A literature review of intimate partner violence and its classifications. Aggress. Violent Behav. 2016, 31, 16–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2016.06.008.
Archer, J. Sex differences in aggression between heterosexual partners: A meta-analytic review. Psychol. Bull. 2000, 126, 651–680. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.126.5.651.
Capaldi, D.M.; Knoble, N.B.; Shortt, J.W.; Kim, H.K. A Systematic Review of Risk Factors for Intimate Partner Violence. Partn. Abus. 2012, 3, 231–280. https://doi.org/10.1891/1946-6560.3.2.231.
Capaldi, D.M.; Low, S.; Tiberio, S.S.; Shortt, J.W. Intimate Partner Violence across the Lifespan: Dyadic Theory and Risk and Protective Factors. In Handbook of Interpersonal Violence and Abuse across the Lifespan; Springer Publishing Company: New York, NY, USA, 2019; pp. 1–25.
Johnson, M.P. Patriarchal Terrorism and Common Couple Violence: Two Forms of Violence against Women. J. Marriage Fam. 1995, 57, 283. https://doi.org/10.2307/353683.
Johnson, M.P.; Leone, J.M. The Differential Effects of Intimate Terrorism and Situational Couple Violence. J. Fam. Issues 2005, 26, 322–349. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513x04270345.
Johnson, M.P. Conflict and Control: Gender Symmetry and Asymmetry in Domestic Violence. Violence Against Women 2006, 12, 1003–1018. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801206293328.
Love, H.A.; Spencer, C.M.; May, S.A.; Mendez, M.; Stith, S.M. Perpetrator Risk Markers for Intimate Terrorism and Situational Couple Violence: A Meta-Analysis. Trauma Violence Abus. 2018, 21, 922–931. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838018801331.
O’Leary, K.D.; Maiuro, R.D. Psychological Abuse in Violent Domestic Relations; Springer Publishing Company: New York, NY, USA, 2001.
Glowacz, F.; Courtain, A. Violences au sein des relations amoureuses des adolescents et jeunes adultes: Une réalité à ne pas négliger. Champ Pénal 2017, XIV. https://doi.org/10.4000/champpenal.9582.
Courtain, A.; Glowacz, F. Exploration of Dating Violence and Related Attitudes Among Adolescents and Emerging Adults. J. Interpers. Violence 2021, 36, NP2975–NP2998. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518770185.
Martín-Fernández, M.; Gracia, E.; Lila, M. Psychological intimate partner violence against women in the European Union: A cross-national invariance study. BMC Public Health 2019, 19, 1739. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-7998-0.
Dziewa, A.; Glowacz, F. “Getting out from Intimate Partner Violence: Dynamics and Processes. A Qualitative Analysis of Fe-male and Male Victims’ Narratives”. J. Fam. Violence 2021, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-020-00245-2.
Shorey, R.C.; Febres, J.; Brasfield, H.; Stuart, G.L. The Prevalence of Mental Health Problems in Men Arrested for Domestic Violence. J. Fam. Violence 2012, 27, 741–748. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-012-9463-z.
Swan, S.C.; Gambone, L.J.; Fields, A.M.; Sullivan, T.P.; Snow, D.L. Women Who Use Violence in Intimate Relationships: The Role of Anger, Victimization, and Symptoms of Posttraumatic Stress and Depression. Violence Vict. 2005, 20, 267–285. https://doi.org/10.1891/vivi.20.3.267.
Spencer, C.M.; Stith, S.M.; Cafferky, B. Risk markers for physical intimate partner violence victimization: A meta-analysis. Ag-gress. Violent Behav. 2019, 44, 8–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2018.10.009.
Spencer, C.; Mallory, A.B.; Cafferky, B.M.; Kimmes, J.G.; Beck, A.R.; Stith, S.M. Mental health factors and intimate partner violence perpetration and victimization: A meta-analysis. Psychol. Violence 2019, 9, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000156.
Trevillion, K.; Oram, S.; Feder, G.; Howard, L.M. Experiences of Domestic Violence and Mental Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e51740. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0051740.
Breet, E.; Seedat, S.; Kagee, A. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Depression in Men and Women Who Perpetrate Intimate Partner Violence. J. Interpers. Violence 2016, 34, 2181–2198. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516660297.
Moreira, D.N.; da Costa, M.P. The impact of the Covid-19 pandemic in the precipitation of intimate partner violence. Int. J. Law Psychiatry 2020, 71, 101606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2020.101606.
Lyons, M.; Brewer, G. Experiences of Intimate Partner Violence during Lockdown and the COVID-19 Pandemic. J. Fam. Violence 2021, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-021-00260-x.
Zandifar, A.; Badrfam, R. Iranian mental health during the COVID-19 epidemic. Asian J. Psychiatry 2020, 51, 101990. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2020.101990.
Carleton, R.N. Into the unknown: A review and synthesis of contemporary models involving uncertainty. J. Anxiety Disord. 2016, 39, 30–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2016.02.007.
Freeston, M.H.; Rhéaume, J.; Letarte, H.; Dugas, M.; Ladouceur, R. Why do people worry? Pers. Individ. Differ. 1994, 17, 791–802. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(94)90048-5.
Birrell, J.; Meares, K.; Wilkinson, A.; Freeston, M. Toward a definition of intolerance of uncertainty: A review of factor analytical studies of the Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 2011, 31, 1198–1208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2011.07.009.
Dar, K.A.; Iqbal, N.; Mushtaq, A. Intolerance of uncertainty, depression, and anxiety: Examining the indirect and moderating effects of worry. Asian J. Psychiatry 2017, 29, 129–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2017.04.017.
Tobar, R.A.T.; De Colombia, B.U.C.; Avendaño-Prieto, B.L.; Espinosa, N.M.V. Transdiagnostic Model of Anxiety and Depression According to the Relationship with Affect, Intolerance of Uncertainly, and Anxiety Sensitivity. CES Psicol. 2020, 13, 140– 152. https://doi.org/10.21615/cesp.13.1.9.
Satici, B.; Saricali, M.; Satici, S.A.; Griffiths, M.D. Intolerance of Uncertainty and Mental Wellbeing: Serial Mediation by Rumi-nation and Fear of COVID-19. Int. J. Ment. Health Addict. 2020, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00305-0.
Del Valle, M.V.; Andrés, M.L.; Urquijo, S.; Yerro-Avincetto, M.; López-Morales, H.; Canet-Juric, L. Intolerance of uncertainty over COVID-19 pandemic and its effect on anxiety and depressive symptoms. Rev. Interam. De Psicol. /Interam. J. Psychol. 2020, 54, e1335. https://doi.org/10.30849/ripijp.v54i2.1335.
Dodge, K.A. The Structure and Function of Reactive and Proactive Aggression. In The Development and Treatment of Child-Hood Aggression; Pepler, D.J., Rubin, K.H., Eds.; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: Hillsdale, NJ, USA, 1991; pp. 201–218.
Fracalanza, K.; Koerner, N.; Deschênes, S.S.; Dugas, M.J. Intolerance of Uncertainty Mediates the Relation Between Generalized Anxiety Disorder Symptoms and Anger. Cogn. Behav. Ther. 2013, 43, 122–132. https://doi.org/10.1080/16506073.2014.888754.
Sadeh, N.; Bredemeier, K. Engaging in Risky and Impulsive Behaviors to Alleviate Distress Mediates Associations Between Intolerance of Uncertainty and Externalizing Psychopathology. J. Pers. Disord. 2021, 35, 393–408. https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi_2019_33_456.
Boswell, J.F.; Thompson-Hollands, J.; Farchione, T.J.; Barlow, D.H. Intolerance of Uncertainty: A Common Factor in the Treatment of Emotional Disorders. J. Clin. Psychol. 2013, 69, 630–645. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.21965.
Gentes, E.L.; Ruscio, A.M. A meta-analysis of the relation of intolerance of uncertainty to symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder, major depressive disorder, and obsessive–compulsive disorder. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 2011, 31, 923–933. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2011.05.001.
Rosser, B.A. Intolerance of Uncertainty as a Transdiagnostic Mechanism of Psychological Difficulties: A Systematic Review of Evidence Pertaining to Causality and Temporal Precedence. Cogn. Ther. Res. 2019, 43, 438–463. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-018-9964-z.
Zigmond, A.S.; Snaith, R.P. The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 1983, 67, 361–370. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1983.tb09716.x.
Bjelland, I.; Dahl, A.A.; Haug, T.T.; Neckelmann, D. The validity of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. An updated literature review. J. Psychosom. Res. 2002, 52, 69–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-3999(01)00296-3.
Straus, M.A.; Douglas, E.M. A Short Form of the Revised Conflict Tactics Scales, and Typologies for Severity and Mutuality. Violence Vict. 2004, 19, 507–520. https://doi.org/10.1891/vivi.19.5.507.63686.
Preacher, K.J.; Hayes, A.F. SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behav. Res. Methods Instrum. Comput. 2004, 36, 717–731. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03206553.
Shrout, P.E.; Bolger, N. Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psy-chol. Methods 2002, 7, 422–445. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989x.7.4.422.
Hayes, A.F. An Index and Test of Linear Moderated Mediation. Multivar. Behav. Res. 2015, 50, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2014.962683.
Hayes, A.F. Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis, 2nd ed.; A Regression-Based Approach; Guil-ford Publications: New York, NY, USA, 2017.
Hayes, A.F. Partial, conditional, and moderated moderated mediation: Quantification, inference, and interpretation. Commun. Monogr. 2018, 85, 4–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2017.1352100.
Band-Winterstein, T.; Eisikovits, Z. Intimate Violence across the Lifespan; Springer Publishing Company: New York, NY, USA, 2014.
Chang, J.C.; Dado, D.; Hawker, L.; Cluss, P.A.; Buranosky, R.; Slagel, L.; McNeil, M.; Scholle, S.H. Understanding Turning Points in Intimate Partner Violence: Factors and Circumstances Leading Women Victims Toward Change. J. Women’s Health 2010, 19, 251–259. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2009.1568.
Kim, H.K.; Laurent, H.K.; Capaldi, D.M.; Feingold, A. Men’s Aggression toward Women: A 10-Year Panel Study. J. Marriage Fam. 2008, 70, 1169–1187. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2008.00558.x.
Benson, M.L.; Fox, G.L. When Violence Hits Home: How Economics and Neighborhood Play a Role, Research in Brief; National Institute of Justice. 2004. Available online: https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/Publications/abstract.aspx?ID=205004 (accessed on 7 September 2020).
Renzetti, C.; Larkin, V. Economic Stress and Domestic Violence; CRVAW Faculty Research Reports and Papers, 2009. Available online: https://uknowledge.uky.edu/crvaw_reports (accessed on 7 July 2020).
Fiorillo, A.; Gorwood, P. The consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health and implications for clinical practice. Eur. Psychiatry 2020, 63, e32. https://doi.org/10.1192/j.eurpsy.2020.35.
Berg, M.T.; Rogers, E.M.; Liu, W.; Mumford, E.A.; Taylor, B.G. The interpersonal context of depression and violent behavior: A social psychological interpretation. Aggress. Behav. 2019, 45, 437–449. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21832.
Green, K.; Browne, K. Personality Disorder Traits, Trauma, and Risk in Perpetrators of Domestic Violence. Int. J. Offender Ther. Comp. Criminol. 2019, 64, 147–166. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624x19826516.
Warburton, E.; Raniolo, G. Domestic Abuse during COVID-19: What about the boys? Psychiatry Res. 2020, 291, 113155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113155.
Telles, L.E.D.B.; Valença, A.M.; Barros, A.J.S.; da Silva, A.G. Domestic violence in the COVID-19 pandemic: A forensic psychiatric perspective. Rev. Bras. Psiquiatr. 2021, 43, 233–234. https://doi.org/10.1590/1516-4446-2020-1060.
Jarnecke, A.M.; Flanagan, J.C. Staying safe during COVID-19: How a pandemic can escalate risk for intimate partner violence and what can be done to provide individuals with resources and support. Psychol. Trauma: Theory, Res. Pract. Policy 2020, 12, S202–S204. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000688.
Chapman, H.; Gillespie, S.M. The Revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2): A review of the properties, reliability, and validity of the CTS2 as a measure of partner abuse in community and clinical samples. Aggress. Violent Behav. 2019, 44, 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2018.10.006.
Haider, I.I.; Tiwana, F.; Tahir, S.M. Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Adult Mental Health. Pak. J. Med. Sci. 2020, 36, S90– S94. https://doi.org/10.12669/pjms.36.covid19-s4.2756.
Shah, K.; Kamrai, D.; Mekala, H.; Mann, B.; Desai, K.; Patel, R.S. Focus on Mental Health During the Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic: Applying Learnings from the Past Outbreaks. Cureus 2020, 12, e7405. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.7405.