Geoarchaeology of the Roman port-city of Ostia: Fluvio-coastal mobility, urban development and resilience

Geoarchaeology; Ostia; Palaeoenvironmental analysis; Resilience; River Tiber; Roman city; Tiber delta; Urban fabric; Italy; Lazio; Roma [Lazio]; Tiber River

Abstract :

[en] Ostia is one of the most extensively excavated cities of the Roman period. The port-city of Rome, which today lies 4 km from the coastline, was established in a very constrained environment at the mouth of the River Tiber. Based on a review of the geoarchaeological and archaeological research at Ostia, 4 new cores analysed through palaeoenvionmental methods, and 21 new radiocarbon dates, we propose a new model of the fluvio-coastal landscape of Ostia from its origin: (1) the coastline shifted rapidly westward between the 8th and the 6th c. BCE followed by a slow progradation and possible erosion phases until the end of the 1st c. CE; (2) the castrum of Ostia (c. late 4th–early 3rd c. BCE) was founded away from the river mouth but close to the River Tiber; (3) between the 4th and the 1st c. BCE, the River Tiber shifted from a position next to the castrum, below the northern Imperial cardo of Ostia, to 150 m to the north; (4) a possible harbour was established to the north of the castrum during the Republican period; (5) the city expanded and a district was built over the harbour and the palaeochannel between the Republican period and the beginning of the 2nd c. CE, showing that Ostia was a dynamic and resilient city during that time. Finally, we suggest the possibility to combine urban fabric analysis (the orientation of the structures) and palaeoenvironmental analysis for reconstructing the evolution of the city in relation to the fluvio-coastal mobility. © 2017 Elsevier B.V.

Disciplines :

Archaeology

Author, co-author :

Salomon, F.; Université de Strasbourg, Faculté de Géographie et d'Aménagement, Laboratoire Image Ville Environnement UMR 7362, 3 rue de l'Argonne, Strasbourg cedex, 67083, France, University of Southampton, Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, Avenue Campus, Southampton, SO17 1BF, United Kingdom

Goiran, J.-P.; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), UMR 5133-Archéorient, MOM, 7 rue Raulin, Lyon, 69007, France

Noirot, B.; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), UMR 5133-Archéorient, MOM, 7 rue Raulin, Lyon, 69007, France

Pleuger, Elisa ; Université de Liège - ULiège

Bukowiecki, E.; Ecole française de Rome, Piazza Farnese 67, Roma, 00186, Italy

Mazzini, I.; IGAG CNR, Area della Ricerca di Roma 1, Italy

Carbonel, P.; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), UMR 5508-EPOC, 16, rue de Mégret, Talence, F-33400, France

Gadhoum, A.; Institut National du Patrimoine de Tunisie (INP), Département d'archéologie sous-marine, 04, place du château, Tunis, 1008, Tunisia

Arnaud, P.; Université Lumière Lyon 2, UMR 5189 - HiSoMA, 5, Avenue Pierre Mendes-France, Bron Cedex, 69676, France

Keay, S.; University of Southampton, Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, Avenue Campus, Southampton, SO17 1BF, United Kingdom

More authors (7 more)

Language :

English

Title :

Geoarchaeology of the Roman port-city of Ostia: Fluvio-coastal mobility, urban development and resilience

Publication date :

February 2018

Journal title :

Earth-Science Reviews

ISSN :

0012-8252

eISSN :

1872-6828

Publisher :

Elsevier, Netherlands

Volume :

177

Pages :

265-283

Peer reviewed :

Peer Reviewed verified by ORBi

Funders :

ANR-11-JSH3-0002Seventh Framework Programme, FP7European Research Council, ERC: 339123Institut Universitaire de France, IUFSeventh Framework Programme, FP7

Available on ORBi :

since 14 May 2021

Statistics

Number of views

43 (1 by ULiège)

Number of downloads

1 (1 by ULiège)

More statistics

Scopus citations^®

Scopus citations^®
without self-citations

OpenCitations

Bibliography

Adembri, B., A. Gallina Zevi, A. Claridge (dir.) “Roman Ostia” Revisited: Archaeological and Historical Papers in Memory of Russell Meiggs. 1996, British School at Rome, London, 39–67.
Aerts, J., Major, D.C., Bowman, M.J., Dircke, P., Aris Marfai, M., Connecting Delta Cities: Coastal Cities, Flood Risk Management and Adaptation to Climate Change. 2009.
Albrito, P., Making cities resilient: increasing resilience to disasters at the local level. J. Bus. Contin. Emerg. Plan. 5 (2012), 291–297.
Aldrete, G.S., Floods of the Tiber in Ancient Rome. 2007, The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
Allinne, C., Les villes romaines face aux inondations. La place des données archéologiques dans l'étude des risques fluviaux. Géomorphologie Relief Process. Environ., 2007, 67–84.
Allison, M., Yuill, B., Törnqvist, T., Amelung, F., Dixon, T., Erkens, G., Stuurman, R., Jones, C., Milne, G., Steckler, M., Syvitski, J., Teatini, P., Global risks and research priorities for coastal subsidence. Eos, 97, 2016, 10.1029/2016EO055013.
Anthony, E.J., Marriner, N., Morhange, C., Human influence and the changing geomorphology of Mediterranean deltas and coasts over the last 6000 years: from progradation to destruction phase?. Earth-Sci. Rev. 139 (2014), 336–361, 10.1016/j.earscirev.2014.10.003.
Arnaud-Fassetta, G., Carcaud, N., Castanet, C., Salvador, P.-G., Fluviatile palaeoenvironments in archaeological context: geographical position, methodological approach and global change – hydrological risk issues. Quat. Int. 216 (2010), 93–117, 10.1016/j.quaint.2009.03.009.
Arnoldus-Huyzendveld, A., The natural environment of the Agro Portuense. Keay, S., Millett, M., Paroli, L., Strutt, K., (eds.) Portus: An Archaeological Survey of the Port of Imperial Rome, the British School at Rome, Archaeological Monographs of the British School at Rome, 2005, British School at Rome, London, 14–30.
Arnoldus-Huyzendveld, A., Paroli, L., Alcune considerazioni sullo sviluppo storico dell'ansa dell Tevere presso Ostia e sul porto-canale. Archeol. Laz. 12 (1995), 383–392.
Arnoldus-Huyzendveld, A., Pellegrino, A., Traces of historical landscapes preserved in the coastal area of Rome. Mem. Descr. Della Carta Geol. D'Italia 65 (1999), 219–226.
Aschan-Leygonie, C., Vers une analyse de la resilience des systèmes spatiaux. Espace Géographique 29 (2000), 64–77, 10.3406/spgeo.2000.1968.
Ashton, A.D., Giosan, L., Wave-angle control of delta evolution. Geophys. Res. Lett., 38, 2011, L13405, 10.1029/2011GL047630.
Augustine, n.d. Confessions, Books 9–13, v.2. Translated by Carolyn J.-B. Hammond, 2016, Loeb Classical Library. Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
Bateman, N., Milne, G., A Roman Harbour in London; excavations and observations near pudding lane, city of London 1979–82. Britannia 14 (1983), 207–226, 10.2307/526350.
Becatti, G., La fondazione della città. Di Ostia, Scavi, Generale, Topografia, Istruzione, Ministero Della Pubblica, (eds.) Direzione Generale Delle Antichità E Belle Arti, 1953, Libreria dello Stato, Roma, 93–96.
Bellotti, P., Milli, S., Tortora, P., Valeri, P., Physical stratigraphy and sedimentology of the Late Pleistocene-Holocene Tiber Delta depositional sequence. Sedimentology 42 (1995), 617–634.
Bellotti, P., Calderoni, G., Carboni, M.G., Di Bella, L., Tortora, P., Valeri, P., Zernitskaya, V., Late Quaternary landscape evolution of the Tiber River delta plain (Central Italy): new evidence from pollen data, biostratigraphy and 14C dating. Z. Für Geomorphol. 51 (2007), 505–534.
Bellotti, P., Mattei, M., Tortora, P., Valeri, P., Geoarchaeological investigations in the area of the imperial harbours of Rome. Méditerranée 112 (2009), 51–58.
Bellotti, P., Calderoni, G., Di Rita, F., D'Orefice, M., D'Amico, C., Esu, D., Magri, D., Martinez, M.P., Tortora, P., Valeri, P., The Tiber river delta plain (central Italy): coastal evolution and implications for the ancient Ostia Roman settlement. The Holocene 21 (2011), 1105–1116, 10.1177/0959683611400464.
Berger, J.-F., Etude géo-archéologique des réseaux hydrauliques romains de Gaule Narbonnaise haute et moyenne vallée du Rhône: apports à la gestion des ressources en eau et à l'histoire agraire antique. Ella Hermon Dir Vers Une Gest. Intégrée Eau Dans Emp. Romain Actes Colloq. Int. Univ. Laval Octobre 2006 “L'Erma” di Bretschneider. 2008, 107–112.
Berger, J.-F., Bravard, J.-P., Le développement économique romain face à la crise environnementale: le cas de la Gaule narbonnaise. (Coord.) Berger, J.-F., (eds.) Des Climats et Des Hommes, Recherches, 2012 (Coédition La Découverte-Inrap).
Bernigaud, N., Berger, J.-F., Bouby, L., Delhon, C., Latour-Argant, C., Ancient canals in the valley of Bourgoin-La Verpillière (France, Isère): morphological and geoarchaeological studies of irrigation systems from the Iron Age to the Early Middle Ages (8th century bc–6th century ad). Water Hist. 6 (2014), 73–93, 10.1007/s12685-013-0096-9.
Bersani, P., Moretti, D., Evoluzione storica della linea di costa in prossimità della foce del Tevere. L'Acqua 5 (2008), 77–88.
Bertacchi, L., Elementi per una revisione della topografia ostiense. Rendiconti Della Accad. Naz. Dei Lincei 8 (1960), 8–33.
Bicket, A.R., Rendell, H.M., Claridge, A., Rose, P., Andrews, J., Brown, F.S., A multiscale geoarchaeological approach from the Laurentine shore (Castelporziano, Lazio, Italy). Géomorphologie Relief Process. Environ. 4 (2009), 257–270.
Bohannon, J., The Nile Delta's sinking future. Science 327 (2010), 1444–1447 New Series.
Bond, G., Kromer, B., Beer, J., Muscheler, R., Evans, M.N., Showers, W., Hoffmann, S., Lotti-Bond, R., Hajdas, I., Bonani, G., Persistent solar influence on North Atlantic climate during the Holocene. Science 294 (2001), 2130–2136.
Brandizzi-Vittucci, P., Considerazioni sulla via Severiana e sulla Tabula Peutingeriana. Mélanges Ecole Fr. Rome Antiq. 110 (1998), 929–993.
Bravard, J.-P., Le Bot-Helly, A., Helly, B., Savay-Guerraz, H., Le site de Vienne (38), Saint-Romain-en-Gal (69) et Sainte-Colombe (69): l'évolution de la plaine alluviale du Rhône de l'âge du Fer à la fin de l'Antiquité, proposition d'interprétation. Actes Xe Rencontres Int. D'Archéologie D'Histoire D'Antibes 19–21 Octobre 1989 Archéologie Espac. Éditions ADPCA Juan–Pins. 1990, 437–452.
Brigand, R., Archaeogeography and planimetric landscapes. Detecting and Understanding Historic Landscapes, Post-Classical Archaeologies/Studies, 2015, SAP Società Archeologica s.r.l., Mantova, 173–208.
Brown, A.G., Alluvial geoarchaeology: floodplain archaeology and environmental change. Cambridge Manuals in Archaeology, 1997, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Brückner, H., Coastal changes in western Turkey; rapid delta progradation in historical times. Bull. Inst. Océan., 63–74, 1997.
Brückner, H., Müllenhoff, M., Handl, M., Van Der Borg, K., Holocene landscape evolution of the Büyük Menderes alluvial plain in the environs of Myous and Priene (Western Anatolia, Turkey). Z. Für Geomorphol. 127 (2002), 47–65.
Bukowiecki, E., Rousse, C., Etude sur la construction des Grandi Horrea d'Ostie. Chron. Act. Archéologiques L'École Fr. Rome 119 (2007), 283–286.
Cailleux, A., Tricart, J., Initiation à l'étude des sables et des galets. 1959, Centre de documentation universitaire, Paris.
Calza, G., Becatti, G., Gismondi, I., De Angelis D'Ossat, G., Bloch, H., Scavi di Ostia, Topografia generale, Ministero della pubblica istruzione, Direzione generale delle antichità e belle arti. 1953, Libreria dello Stato, Roma.
Camuffo, D., Enzi, S., The analysis of two bi-millenary series: Tiber and Po River floods. Jones, P.D., Bradley, R.S., Jouzel, J., (eds.) Climatic Variations and Forcing Mechanisms of the Last 2000 Years. Presented at the NATO ASI Series, Series I: Global Environmental Change, 1995, Springer, Stuttgart, 433–450.
Canina, L., Indicazione delle rovine di Ostia e di Porto e della supposizione e dell'intiero loro stato delineata in quattro tavole dall'architetto Luigi Canina. 1830, Mercuri and Boraglia, Roma.
Carbonel, P., Ostracods and the transition between fresh and saline waters. Deccker P Colin J-P Peyrpouquet J-P Eds Ostracoda Earth Sci., 1988, 157–173.
Carcopino, J., Ostie, Les visites d'art. 1929, E. de Boccard, Paris.
Cébeillac-Gervasoni, M., Caldelli, M.L., Zevi, F., Epigraphie latine, Collection U. 2006, Armand Colin, Paris.
Chouquer, G., Les transformations récentes de la centuriation. Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales, 2008, Editions de l'EHESS, 847–874.
Cicero, n.d. On the Republic. On the Laws. Translated by Clinton W. Keyes, 1928. Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
Clarke, H., Ambrosiani, B., Towns in the Viking Age. 1991, Leicester University.
Coarelli, F., I santuari, il Fiume, gli Empori. Storia Roma 1 (1988), 127–152.
Constans, L.A., Ostie primitive. J. Savants 10 (1926), 436–447.
David, M., Carinci, M., Graziano, S.M., Togni, S.D., Pellegrino, A., Turci, M., Nuovi dati e argomenti per Ostia tardoantica dal Progetto Ostia Marina. Mélanges LÉcole Fr. Rome - Antiq., 2014, 10.4000/mefra.2198.
Dearing, J.A., Environmental magnetic susceptibility. Using Bartington MS2 Syst, 32, 1999, 54.
DeLaine, J., Building activity in Ostia in the second century AD. Ostia E Portus Nelle Loro Relazioni Con Roma, 2002, Acta Instituti Romani Finlandiae. Institutum Romanum Finlandiae, Rome, 41–102.
Delile, H., Blichert-Toft, J., Goiran, J.-P., Keay, S., Albarède, F., Lead in ancient Rome's city waters. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 111 (2014), 6594–6599, 10.1073/pnas.1400097111.
Delile, H., Mazzini, I., Blichert-Toft, J., Goiran, J.P., Arnaud-Godet, F., Salomon, F., Albarède, F., Geochemical investigation of a sediment core from the Trajan basin at Portus, the harbor of ancient Rome. Quat. Sci. Rev. 87 (2014), 34–45, 10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.01.002.
Di Giuseppe, H., Patterson, H., Il dibattito storiografico intorno alla South Etruria Survey e i nuovi risultati del progetto Valle del Tevere. Pavolini, Jolivet Volpe, (eds.) Suburbium. II., Il Suburbio Di Roma Dalla Fine Dell'età Monarchica Alla Nascita Del Sistema Delle Ville, V-II Secolo A. C, 2009, Ecole française de Rome, Rome, 7–26.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, n.d. Antiquitates Romanae/Roman Antiquities: Bks. 3–4, v.2. Translated by E. Cary 1939, Loeb Classical Library. Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
Dixon, T.H., Amelung, F., Ferretti, A., Novali, F., Rocca, F., Dokka, R., Sella, G., Kim, S.-W., Wdowinski, S., Whitman, D., Space geodesy: subsidence and flooding in New Orleans. Nature 441 (2006), 587–588, 10.1038/441587a.
Doukellis, P.N., Fouache, É., La centuriation romaine de la plaine d'Arta replacée dans le contexte de l'évolution morphologique récente des deltas de l'Arachtos et du Louros. Bull. Corresp. Hell. 116 (1992), 375–382, 10.3406/bch.1992.1710.
Drescher-Schneider, R., De Beaulieu, J.L., Magny, M., Walter-Simonnet, A.V., Bossuet, G., Millet, L., Brugiapaglia, E., Drescher, A., Vegetation history, climate and human impact over the last 15,000 years at Lago dell'Accesa (Tuscany, Central Italy). Veg. Hist. Archaeobotany 16 (2007), 279–299.
Ennius, n.d. Annals. Translated by O. Skutsch 1985. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Fagherazzi, S., Edmonds, D.A., Nardin, W., Leonardi, N., Canestrelli, A., Falcini, F., Jerolmack, D., Mariotti, G., Rowland, J.C., Slingerland, R.L., Dynamics of river mouth deposits. Rev. Geophys., 2015, 2014RG000451, 10.1002/2014RG000451.
Flaux, C., Marriner, N., el-Assal, M., Kaniewski, D., Morhange, C., Late Holocene erosion of the Canopic promontory (Nile Delta, Egypt). Mar. Geol. 385 (2017), 56–67, 10.1016/j.margeo.2016.11.010.
Florus, n.d. Epitome of Roman History. Translated by E. S. Forster, 1929, Loeb Classical Library. Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
Folk, R.L., Ward, W.C., Brazos River bar [Texas]; a study in the significance of grain size parameters. J. Sediment. Res. 27 (1957), 3–26.
Frenzel, P., Boomer, I., The use of ostracods from marginal marine, brackish waters as bioindicators of modern and Quaternary environmental change. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 225 (2005), 68–92, 10.1016/j.palaeo.2004.02.051.
Galadini, F., Galli, P., The 346 A.D. earthquake (Central-Southern Italy): an archaeoseismological approach. Ann. Geophys., 47, 2004, 10.4401/ag-3341.
Gauthiez, B., Zadora-Rio, É., Galinié, H., Village et ville au Moyen Âge: les dynamiques morphologiques, Sciences de la ville. 2003, Presses universitaires François-Rabelais/Maison des sciences de l'Homme “Villes et Territoires,” Tour.
van Geel, B., La crise climatique de 850 avant notre ère. (Coord.) Berger, J.-F., (eds.) Des Climats et Des Hommes, 2012, La Découverte.
Gering, A., Le ultime fasi della monumentalizzazione del centro di Ostia tardoantica. Mélanges LÉcole Fr. Rome - Antiq., 2014, 10.4000/mefra.2140.
Giraudi, C., Evoluzione tardo-olocenica del delta del Tevere. Il Quat. 17 (2004), 477–492.
Giraudi, C., Tata, C., Paroli, L., Late Holocene evolution of Tiber river delta and geoarchaeology of Claudius and Trajan Harbor, Rome. Geoarchaeology 24 (2009), 371–382, 10.1002/gea.20270.
Goiran, J.-P., Tronchère, H., Salomon, F., Carbonel, P., Djerbi, H., Ognard, C., Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of the ancient harbors of Rome: Claudius and Trajan's marine harbors on the Tiber delta. Quat. Int. 216 (2010), 3–13, 10.1016/j.quaint.2009.10.030.
Goiran, J.-P., Salomon, F., Mazzini, I., Bravard, J.-P., Pleuger, E., Vittori, C., Boetto, G., Christiansen, J., Arnaud, P., Pellegrino, A., Pepe, C., Sadori, L., Geoarchaeology confirms location of the ancient harbour basin of Ostia (Italy). J. Archaeol. Sci. 41 (2014), 389–398, 10.1016/j.jas.2013.08.019.
Goodfriend, G.A., Stanley, D.J., Rapid strand-plain accretion in the northeastern Nile Delta in the 9th century A.D. and the demise of the port of Pelusium. Geology 27 (1999), 147–150, 10.1130/0091-7613(1999)027<0147:RSPAIT>2.3.CO;2.
Groenman-van Waateringe, W., van Geel, B., Raised bed agriculture in northwest Europe triggered by climatic change around 850 BC: a hypothesis. Environ. Archaeol., 1–5, 2016, 10.1080/14614103.2016.1141085.
Hadler, H., Vött, A., Fischer, P., Ludwig, S., Heinzelmann, M., Rohn, C., Temple-complex post-dates tsunami deposits found in the ancient harbour basin of Ostia (Rome, Italy). J. Archaeol. Sci. 61 (2015), 78–89, 10.1016/j.jas.2015.05.002.
Hallegatte, S., Ranger, N., Mestre, O., Dumas, P., Corfee-Morlot, J., Herweijer, C., Wood, R.M., Assessing climate change impacts, sea level rise and storm surge risk in port cities: a case study on Copenhagen. Clim. Chang. 104 (2010), 113–137, 10.1007/s10584-010-9978-3.
Hallegatte, S., Green, C., Nicholls, R.J., Corfee-Morlot, J., Future flood losses in major coastal cities. Nat. Clim. Chang. 3 (2013), 802–806, 10.1038/nclimate1979.
Heinzelmann, M., Bauboom und urbanistische Defizite–zur städtebaulichen Entwicklung Ostias im 2. Jh. Ostia E Portus Nelle Loro Relazioni Con Roma, 2002, Acta Instituti Romani Finlandiae. Institutum Romanum Finlandiae, Rome, 103–122.
Heiri, O., Lotter, A.F., Lemcke, G., Loss on ignition as a method for estimating organic and carbonate content in sediments: reproducibility and comparability of results. J. Paleolimnol. 25 (2001), 101–110, 10.1023/A:1008119611481.
Jabareen, Y., Planning the resilient city: concepts and strategies for coping with climate change and environmental risk. Cities 31 (2013), 220–229, 10.1016/j.cities.2012.05.004.
Keay, S., Portus and the Alexandrian Grain Trade Revisited. Bolletino Archeol. Online Special issue: XVII International Congress of Classical Archaeology, Roma 22–26 Septembre 2008. 2010.
Keay, S., The port system of imperial Rome. Keay, S., (eds.) Portus and the Mediterranean, Archaeological Monographs of the British School at Rome, 2012, British School at Rome, London, 33–67.
Keay, S., Paroli, L., Portus and Its Hinterland: Recent Archaeological Research, Archaeological Monographs of the British School at Rome. 2011, British School at Rome, London.
Keay, S., Parcak, S.H., Strutt, K.D., High resolution space and ground-based remote sensing and implications for landscape archaeology: the case from Portus, Italy. J. Archaeol. Sci. 52 (2014), 277–292, 10.1016/j.jas.2014.08.010.
Le Gall, J., Le Tibre, fleuve de Rome dans l'antiquité. 1953, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris.
Leichenko, R., Climate change and urban resilience. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 3 (2011), 164–168, 10.1016/j.cosust.2010.12.014.
Leveau, P., Les inondations du Tibre à Rome: politiques publiques et variations climatiques à l'époque romaine. Actes Du Colloque International de Québec (27–29 Octobre 2006), La Gestion Intégrée Des Ressources En Eau Dans L'histoire Environnementale: Savoirs Traditionnels et Pratiques Modernes. “L'Erma” di Bretschneider, Roma, 2008, 137–146.
Lichter, M., Klein, M., Zviely, D., Dynamic morphology of small south-eastern Mediterranean river mouths: a conceptual model. Earth Surf. Process. Landf. 36 (2011), 547–562, 10.1002/esp.2077.
Livy, n.d.-a Ab urbe condita/History of Rome: Bks. 1–2. Translated by B.O. Foster 1919, Loeb Classical Library. Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
Livy, n.d.-b Ab urbe condita/History of Rome: Bks. 28–30, v.8. Translated by F.G. Moore 1949, Loeb Classical Library. Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press.
Magny, M., De Beaulieu, J.-L., Drescher-Schneider, R., Vannière, B., Walter-Simonnet, A.V., Miras, Y., Millet, L., Bossuet, G., Peyron, O., Brugiapaglia, E. et al., Holocene climate changes in the central Mediterranean as recorded by lake-level fluctuations at Lake Accesa (Tuscany, Italy). Quat. Sci. Rev. 26 (2007), 1736–1758.
Magny, M., Vannière, B., Zanchetta, G., Fouache, E., Touchais, G., Petrika, L., Coussot, C., Walter-Simonnet, A.V., Arnaud, F., Possible complexity of the climatic event around 4300—3800 cal. BP in the central and western Mediterranean. The Holocene 19 (2009), 823–833, 10.1177/0959683609337360.
Maillet, G.M., Sabatier, F., Rousseau, D., Provansal, M., Fleury, T.J., Connexions entre le Rhône et son delta (partie 1): évolution du trait de côte du delta du Rhône depuis le milieu du XIXe siècle. Géomorphologie Relief Process. Environ., 2006, 111–124, 10.4000/geomorphologie.558.
Maillet, G.M., Vella, C., Provansal, M., Sabatier, F., Connexions entre le Rhône et son delta (partie 2): évolution du trait de côte du delta du Rhône depuis le début du XVIIIe siècle. Géomorphologie Relief Process. Environ., 2006, 125–140, 10.4000/geomorphologie.559.
Mar, R., La formazione dello spazio urbano nella città di Ostia. Mitteilungen Dtsch. Archäol. Inst. Römische Abt. 98 (1991), 81–109.
Marra, F., Bozzano, F., Cinti, F.R., Chronostratigraphic and lithologic features of the Tiber River sediments (Rome, Italy): implications on the post-glacial sea-level rise and Holocene climate. Glob. Planet. Chang. 107 (2013), 157–176, 10.1016/j.gloplacha.2013.05.002.
Marriner, N., Morhange, C., Geoarchaeological evidence for dredging in Tyre's ancient harbour, Levant. Quat. Res. 65 (2006), 164–171.
Marriner, N., Morhange, C., Geoscience of ancient Mediterranean harbours. Earth-Sci. Rev. 80 (2007), 137–194, 10.1016/j.earscirev.2006.10.003.
Marriner, N., Morhange, C., Goiran, J.-P., Coastal and ancient harbour geoarchaeology. Geol. Today 26 (2010), 21–27.
Martin, A., Un saggio sulle mura del castrum di Ostia (Reg. I, ins. X, 3). Gallina Zevi, A., Claridge, A.J., (eds.) “Roman Ostia” revisited, Archaeological and Historical Papers in Memory of Russell Meiggs, 1996, British School at Rome and Soprintendenza Archeologica Di Ostia, London, 19–38.
Martin, A., Heinzelmann, M., De Sena, E.C., Cecere, M.G.G., The urbanistic project on the previously unexcavated areas of Ostia (DAI-AAR 1996–2001). 2002, MAAR, 259–304.
Mazzini, I., Faranda, C., Giardini, M., Giraudi, C., Sadori, L., Late Holocene palaeoenvironmental evolution of the Roman harbour of Portus, Italy. J. Paleolimnol. 46 (2011), 243–256, 10.1007/s10933-011-9536-7.
McCormick, M., Büntgen, U., Cane, M.A., Cook, E.R., Harper, K., Huybers, P., Litt, T., Manning, S.W., Mayewski, P.A., More, A.F.M., Nicolussi, K., Tegel, W., Climate change during and after the Roman Empire: reconstructing the past from scientific and historical evidence. J. Interdiscip. Hist. 43 (2012), 169–220, 10.1162/JINH_a_00379.
Meiggs, R., Roman Ostia. 1973, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Mercuri, A.M., Sadori, L., Climate changes and human settlements since the Bronze age period in central Italy. Rendiconti Online Soc. Geol. Italy., 2012, 32–34, 10.3301/ROL.2011.63.
Mercuri, A.M., Accorsi, C.A., Bandini Mazzanti, M., The long history of Cannabis and its cultivation by the Romans in central Italy, shown by pollen records from Lago Albano and Lago di Nemi. Veg. Hist. Archaeobotany 11 (2002), 263–276.
Miller, L., Douglas, B.C., Mass and volume contributions to twentieth-century global sea level rise. Nature 428 (2004), 406–409, 10.1038/nature02309.
Milli, S., Mancini, M., Moscatelli, M., Stigliano, F., Marini, M., Cavinato, G.P., From river to shelf, anatomy of a high-frequency depositional sequence: the Late Pleistocene to Holocene Tiber depositional sequence. Sedimentology, 2016, 10.1111/sed.12277 (n/a-n/a).
Milne, G., The Port of Roman London. 1985, BT Batsford.
Ministero per i beni culturali e ambientali, Tevere: un'antica via per il mediterraneo, Rome (Italy). Assessorato alla cultura. Ufficio centrale per i beni ambientali architettonici, 1986, Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato, Roma.
Mohajeri, N., Effects of landscape constraints on street patterns in cities: examples from Khorramabad, Iran. Appl. Geogr. 34 (2012), 10–20, 10.1016/j.apgeog.2011.09.007.
Mohajeri, N., French, J.R., Batty, M., Evolution and entropy in the organization of urban street patterns. Ann. GIS 19 (2013), 1–16, 10.1080/19475683.2012.758175.
Noizet, H., Mirlou, L., Robert, S., La résilience des formes. Études Rural., 2013, 191–219.
Pannuzi, S., Il Castello di Giulio II ad Ostia Antica, Documenti di archeologia postmedievale. All'Insegna del Giglio, Firenze, 2009.
Parkins, H., Roman Urbanism: Beyond the Consumer City. 2005, Routledge.
Pavolini, C., Ostia, Guide archeologiche Laterza. G. Laterza, Roma - Bari. 2006.
Pellegrino, A., Olivanti, P., Panariti, F., Ricerche archeologiche nel Trastevere Ostiense. Archeol. Laz. 12 (1995), 393–400.
Pennington, B.T., Thomas, R.I., Paleoenvironmental surveys at Naukratis and the Canopic branch of the Nile. J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep. 7 (2016), 180–188, 10.1016/j.jasrep.2016.03.053.
Pepe, C., Giardini, M., Giraudi, C., Masi, A., Mazzini, I., Sadori, L., Plant landscape and environmental changes recorded in marginal marine environments: the ancient Roman harbour of Portus (Rome, Italy). Quat. Int. 303 (2013), 73–81, 10.1016/j.quaint.2012.11.008.
Pepe, C., Sadori, L., Andrieu-Ponel, V., Salomon, F., Goiran, J.-P., Late Holocene pollen record from Fiume Morto (Dead River), a palaeomeander of Tiber River near Ancient Ostia (central Italy). J. Paleolimnol., 2016, 10.1007/s10933-016-9903-5.
Perrier, B., Les trois édifices successifs: Schola du Trajan, Domus à Péristyle, Domus aux Bucranes. Presented at the Actes du colloque interational de Saint-Romain-en-Gal en l'honneur d'Anna Gallina Zevi, Vienne, 8-10 février 2007 “Villa, maisons, sanctuaires et tombeaux tardo-républicains,”. Edizioni Quasar, 2007, 15–32.
Pliny, n.d. Historiae Naturae/Natural History: Bks. 3–7, v.2. Translated by H. Rackham 1942, Loeb Classical Library. Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
Plutarch, n.d. Lives: Demosthenes and Cicero. Alexander and Caesar. v.7. Translated by B. Perrin, 1919, Loeb Classical Library. Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
Pohl, I., Was early Ostia a Colony or a fort?. Parola Passato 38 (1983), 123–130.
Raddi, M., Pellegrino, A., Indagini Archeologiche - Preliminari alla realizzazione del progetto del nuovo “Ponte della Scafa” - Relazione tecnica. Soprintendenza Speciale per i Beni Archeologici di Roma e Ostia, Rome, 2011.
Reghezza-Zitt, M., Rufat, S., Djament-Tran, G., Le Blanc, A., Lhomme, S., What resilience is not: uses and abuses. Cybergeo Eur. J. Geogr., 2012, 10.4000/cybergeo.25554.
Reimer, P.J., Bard, E., Bayliss, A., Beck, J.W., Blackwell, P.G., Bronk Ramsey, C., Buck, C.E., Cheng, H., Edwards, R.L., Friedrich, M., Grootes, P.M., Guilderson, T.P., Haflidason, H., Hajdas, I., Hatté, C., Heaton, T.J., Hoffmann, D.L., Hogg, A.G., Hughen, K.A., Kaiser, K.F., Kromer, B., Manning, S.W., Niu, M., Reimer, R.W., Richards, D.A., Scott, E.M., Southon, J.R., Staff, R.A., Turney, C.S.M., van der Plicht, J., IntCal13 and Marine13 radiocarbon age calibration curves 0–50,000 years cal BP. Radiocarbon 55 (2013), 1869–1887.
Robert, S., Sittler, B., Water as a morphogen in landscapes/L'eau comme morphogène dans les paysages, Proceedings of the XVII UISPP World Congress (1–7 September 2014, Burgos, Spain). 2016, Archaeopress, Oxford.
Rogers, A., Reimagining Roman ports and harbours: the port of Roman London and waterfront archaeology. Oxf. J. Archaeol. 30 (2011), 207–225, 10.1111/j.1468-0092.2011.00365.x.
Rosenzweig, C., Solecki, W., Hammer, S.A., Mehrotra, S., Cities lead the way in climate-change action. Nature 467 (2010), 909–911, 10.1038/467909a.
Ruiz, F., Abad, M., Bodergat, A.M., Carbonel, P., Rodríguez-Lázaro, J., Yasuhara, M., Marine and brackish-water ostracods as sentinels of anthropogenic impacts. Earth-Sci. Rev. 72 (2005), 89–111, 10.1016/j.earscirev.2005.04.003.
Sadori, L., Giardini, M., Giraudi, C., Mazzini, I., The plant landscape of the imperial harbour of Rome. J. Archaeol. Sci. 37 (2010), 3294–3305.
Sadori, L., Mazzini, I., Pepe, C., Goiran, J.-P., Pleuger, E., Ruscito, V., Salomon, F., Vittori, C., Palynology and ostracodology at the Roman port of ancient Ostia (Rome, Italy). The Holocene, 2016, 959683616640054, 10.1177/0959683616640054.
Salomon, F., Géoarchéologie du delta du Tibre: Evolution géomorphologique holocène et contraintes hydrosédimentaires dans le système Ostie - Portus. (Thèse de doctorat en Géographie Physique/Géoarchéologie), 2, 2013, Université Lyon.
Salomon, F., Delile, H., Goiran, J.-P., Bravard, J.-P., Keay, S., The Canale di Comunicazione Traverso in Portus: the Roman sea harbour under river influence (Tiber delta, Italy). Géomorphologie Relief Process. Environ., 2012, 75–90, 10.4000/geomorphologie.9754.
Salomon, F., Goiran, J.-P., Bravard, J.-P., Arnaud, P., Djerbi, H., Kay, S., Keay, S., A harbour–canal at Portus: a geoarchaeological approach to the Canale Romano: Tiber delta, Italy. Water Hist. 6 (2014), 31–49, 10.1007/s12685-014-0099-1.
Salomon, F., Goiran, J.-P., Pleuger, E., Mazzini, I., Arnoldus-Huyzendveld, A., Ghelli, A., Boetto, G., Germoni, P., Ostie et l'embouchure du Tibre. Chron. Act. Archéologiques L'École Fr. Rome., 2014, 10.4000/cefr.1062.
Salomon, F., Keay, S., Carayon, N., Goiran, J.-P., The development and characteristics of ancient harbours—applying the PADM chart to the case studies of Ostia and Portus. PLoS One, 11, 2016, e0162587, 10.1371/journal.pone.0162587.
Salomon, F., Goiran, J.-P., Pannuzi, S., Djerbi, H., Rosa, C., Long-term interactions between the Roman City of Ostia and its Paleomeander, Tiber Delta, Italy. Geoarchaeology 32 (2017), 215–229, 10.1002/gea.21589.
Segre, A.G., Considerazioni sul Tevere e sull'Aniene nel Quaternario. Il Tevere e le altre vie d'acqua del Lazio antico. Archeol. Laz. VII, 1986, 9–17.
Shepherd, E.J., Il “Rilievo Topofotografico di Osita dal Pallone.” AArea II. 2006, 15–38.
de Smith, M.J., Goodchild, M.F., Longley, P.A., Geospatial Analysis: A Comprehensive Guide to Principles, Techniques and Software Tools. 2009, Troubador Ltd., Leicester, UK.
Stanley, J.-D., Submergence and burial of ancient coastal sites on the subsiding Nile delta margin, Egypt. Méditerranée Rev. Géographique Pays Méditerranéens. J. Mediterr. Geogr., 2005, 65–73, 10.4000/mediterranee.2282.
Stanley, J.-D., Toscano, M.A., Ancient archaeological sites buried and submerged along Egypt's Nile Delta coast: gauges of Holocene Delta margin subsidence. J. Coast. Res., 2009, 158–170, 10.2112/08-0013.1.
Stanley, D.J., Goddio, F., Jorstad, T.F., Schnepp, G., Submergence of ancient Greek cities off Egypt's Nile Delta - a cautionary tale. GSA Today 14 (2004), 4–10.
Stöger, J., Rethinking Ostia: A Spatial Enquiry Into the Urban Society of Rome's Imperial Port-Town. 2011, University Press, Leiden.
Strabo, n.d. Geography, Books 3-5, v.2. Translated by H. Leonard Jones, 1923, Loeb Classical Library. Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
Suetonius, n.d. Lives of the Caesars. Julius. Augustus. Tiberius. Gaius. Caligula. v.1. Translated by J.C. Rolfe 1914, Loeb Classical Library. Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
Swan, A.R.H., Sandilands, M., McCabe, P., Introduction to Geological Data Analysis. 1995, Blackwell Science Ltd, Oxford, U.K.
Syvitski, J.P.M., Kettner, A.J., Overeem, I., Hutton, E.W.H., Hannon, M.T., Brakenridge, G.R., Day, J., Vörösmarty, C., Saito, Y., Giosan, L., Nicholls, R.J., Sinking deltas due to human activities. Nat. Geosci. 2 (2009), 681–686, 10.1038/ngeo629.
Turci, M., Un complesso termale tardo-antico. Mélanges LÉcole Fr. Rome - Antiq., 2014, 10.4000/mefra.2237.
Vaglieri, D., Notizie di Scavi. 1911.
Vella, C., Fleury, T.-J., Raccasi, G., Provansal, M., Sabatier, F., Bourcier, M., Evolution of the Rhône delta plain in the Holocene. Mar. Geol. 222–223 (2005), 235–265 Mediterranean Prodelta Systems https://doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2005.06.028.
Aurelius Victor, n.d. De viris illustribus urbis Romae. Translated by M.-P. Arnaud-Lindet 2004, Online. ed, Scriptorum latinorum collectio. Bibliotheca Augustana, Augsburg.
Vita-Finzi, C., The Mediterranean Valleys: Geological Changes in Historical Times. 1969, Cambridge University Press.
Vittori, C., Mazzini, I., Salomon, F., Goiran, J.-P., Pannuzi, S., Rosa, C., Pellegrino, A., Palaeoenvironmental evolution of the ancient lagoon of Ostia Antica (Tiber delta, Italy). J. Archaeol. Sci. 54 (2015), 374–384, 10.1016/j.jas.2014.06.017.
Wright, L.D., Sediment transport and deposition at river mouths: a synthesis. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 88 (1977), 857–868.
Zevi, F., Sulle fasi piu antiche di Ostia. “Roman Ostia” Revisited: Archaeological and Historical Papers in Memory of Russell Meiggs, 1996, British School at Rome, Londres, 69–89.
Zevi, F., Les débuts d'Ostie. Presented at the Descoeudres J.-P. (dir.), Ostia port et porte de Rome antique. 2001, Georg éditeur, 3–9.
Zevi, F., Ostie sous la République. Presented at the Descoeudres J.-P. (dir.), Ostia port et porte de Rome antique. 2001, Georg éditeur, 10–18.
Zevi, F., Origini di Ostia. Bruun, C., Zevi, A.G., (eds.) Ostia E Portus Nelle Loro Relazioni Con Roma, 2002, Istitutum Romanum Finlandiae, Roma, 11–32.