[en] Being a country exposed to strong seismicity, the estimation of seismic hazard in Tajikistan is essential for urbanized areas, such as the rapidly growing capital city Dushanbe. To ensure people’s safety and adequate construction work, a detailed seismic microzonation is the key to proper hazard planning. Existing estimations of seismic hazard date back to 1978; they are based on engineering geological investigations and observed macroseismic data. Thereupon relies the Tajik Building Code, which considers seismic intensities according to the Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik Scale, MSK-64. However, this code does not accurately account for soil types, which vary considerably in Dushanbe—not only by their nature, but also due to increasing anthropogenic influences. In this study, we performed a series of analyses based on microtremor array measurements, seismic refraction tomography, and instrumental data recording from permanent stations for standard spectral ration and from mobile seismic stations for the horizontal to vertical spectral ratio in order to provide a comprehensive full-cover microzonation of Dushanbe accounting for soil types. Our results identify several critical areas where major damage is likely to occur during strong earthquakes. ...
Babaev, A.M.; Ischuk, A.R.; Negmatullaev, S.K. Seismic Conditions of the Territory of Tajikistan; Publication of the International University of Tajikistan: Dushanbe, Tajikistan, 2005; pp. 93-98.
Negmatullaev, S.K.; Rodzhan, K.; Lunev, A.A.; Zolotarev, A.I. Strong Motion Service of Tajikistan; Donish: Dushanbe, Tajikistan, 1987; p. 150. (In Russian)
Katok, A.P. The Khait Earthquake of 1949 July 10: Effect on Regime of Dushanbe and Garm; Academy Science USSR: Dushanbe, Tajukistan, 1965; pp. 8-14. (In Russian)
Medvedev, S.; Sponheuer, W.; Karník, V. Neue seismische Skala Intensity Scale of Earthquakes, 7. Tagung der Europäischen Seismologischen Kommission vom 24. 9. bis 30. 9. 1962 in Jena, DDR; Akademie-Verlag: Berlin, Germany, 1964; pp. 69-76.
Ishihara, K.; Okusa, S.; Oyagi, N.; Ischuk, A. Liquefaction induced flow slide in the collapsible loess deposit in Soviet Tajik. Soils Found. 1990, 30, 73-89.
Nechaev, V.A. Seismic Microzonation of Stalinabad Territory on the Basis of Instrumental-Geological Method; Academy Science, USSR: Dushanbe, Tajikistan, 1959; pp. 22-35. (In Russian)
Bune, V.I.; Gorshkov, G.P. Seismic Zonation of USSR; Nauka: Moscow, Russia, 1980; p. 307. (In Russian)
Babaev, A.M.; Koshlakov, G.V.; Mirzoev, K.M. Seismic zonation of the area of Tajikistan; Donish: Dushanbe, Tajikistan, 1978; pp. 60-68. (In Russian)
Bindi, D.; Abdrakhmatov, K.; Parolai, S.; Mucciarelli, M.; Grünthal, G.; Ischuk, A.; Mikhailova, N.; Zschau, J. Seismic hazard assessment in Central Asia: Outcomes from a site approach. Soil Dyn. Earthq. Eng. 2012, 37, 84-91.
Pilz, M.; Bindi, D.; Boxberger, T.; Hakimov, F.; Moldobekov, B.; Murodkulov, S.; Orunbaev, S.; Pittore, M.; Stankiewicz, J.; Ullah, S.; et al. First Steps toward a Reassessment of the Seismic Risk of the City of Dushanbe (Tajikistan). Seismol. Res. Lett. 2013, 84, 1026-1038.
Rafi, Z.; Lindholm, C.; Bungum, H. Probabilistic seismic hazard of Pakistan, Azad-Jammu and Kashmir. Nat. Hazards 2012, 61, 1317-1354.
Giardini, D.; Grunthal, G.; Shedlock, K.; Zheng, P. The GSHAP Global Seismic Hazard Map. Annali di Geofisica 1999, 42, 1225-1230.
Zheng, P.; Yang, Z.; Gupta, H.; Bhatia, S.; Shedlock, K. Global Seismic Hazard Assessment Program (GSHAP) in continental Asia. Ann. Geophys. 1999, 42, 1167-1190.
Ischuk, A.; Bjerrum, L.W.; Kamchybekov, M.; Abdrakhmatov, K.; Lindholm, C. Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Assessment for the area of Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Eastern Uzbekistan, Central Asia. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 2017, 108, 130-144.
D’Amico, V.; Picozzi, M.; Baliva, F.; Albarello, D. Ambient noise measurements for preliminary site-effects characterization in the urban area of Florence, Italy. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 2008, 98, 1373-1388.
Bonnefoy-Claudet, S.; Cotton, F.; Bard, P.-Y. The nature of noise wave field and its applications for site effects studies: A literature review. Earth Sci. Rev. 2006, 79, 205-227.
Bonnefoy-Claudet, S.; Baize, S.; Bonilla, L.F.; Berge-Thierry, C.; Pasten, C.R.; Campos, J.; Volant, P.; Verdugo, R. Site effect evaluation in the basin of Santiago de Chile using ambient noise measurements. Geophys. J. Int. 2009, 176, 925-937.
Domej, G.; Aslanov, U.; Ischuk, A. Geophysical investigations on the contribution of irrigation channels to landslide activity in Tusion, Tajikistan. J. Himal. Earth Sci. 2019, 52, 161-177.
Guéguen, P.; Cornou, C.; Garambois, S.; Banton, J. On the Limitation of the H/V Spectral Ratio Using Seismic Noise as an Exploration Tool: Application to the Grenoble Valley (France), a Small Apex Ratio Basin. Pure. Appl. Geophys. 2007, 164, 115-134.
Havenith, H.-B.; Fäh, D.; Polom, U.; Roullé, A. S-wave velocity measurements applied to the seismic microzonation of Basel, Upper Rhine Graben. Geophys. J. Int. 2007, 170, 346-358.
Havenith, H.-B.; Umaraliev, R.; Dudnikov, A. Seismic zonation map of Osh, Kyrgyz Republic. In Cross Border Community Based Disaster Preparedness and Risk Mitigation for Vulnerable Rural Populations of the Ferghana Valley; ECHO Project Report; ACTED-Agency for Technical Cooperation and Development: Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, 2009.
Parolai, S.; Bindi, D.; Augliera, P. Application of the generalized inversion technique (GIT) to a microzonation study: Numerical simulations and comparison with different site-estimation techniques. Bull. Seism. Soc. Am. 2000, 90, 286-297.
Parolai, S.; Orunbaev, S.; Bindi, D.; Strollo, A.; Usupaev, S.; Picozzi, M.; Di Giacomo, D.; Augliera, P.; D’Alema, E.; Milkereit, C.; et al. Site Effects Assessment in Bishkek (Kyrgyzstan) Using Earthquake and Noise Recording Data. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 2010, 100, 3068-3082.
Pilz, M.; Parolai, S.; Leyton, F.; Campos, J.; Zschau, J. A comparison of site response techniques using earthquake data and ambient seismic noise analysis in the large urban areas of Santiago de Chile. Geophys. J. Int. 2009, 178, 713-728.
Pilz, M.; Abakanov, T.; Bindi, D.; Boxberger, T.; Moldobekov, B.; Orunbaev, S.; Silacheva, N.; Ullah, S.; Usupaev, S.; Yasunov, P.; et al. An overview on the seismic microzonation and site effect studies in Central Asia. Ann. Geophys. Italy 2015, 58, 104-116.
Ulysse, S.; Boisson, D.; Prépetit, C.; Havenith, H.B. Site Effect Assessment of the Gros-Morne Hill Area in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, Part A: Geophysical-Seismological Survey Results. Geosciences 2018, 8, 142.
Head Institute of Engineering and Technical Surveys of the State Construction Committee of Tajikistan (HIETSCCT). Collection of borehole data from the Dushanbe city area. Personal communication, 2019.
Zolotarev, G.S.; Fachorenko, W.S.; Lipmija, W.I.; Hergow, D.; Rohdijow, N.A.; Jaodokowa, P. Polygon-Based Engineering and Geological Map of the Dushanbe Region; Soviet Academy of Science: Moscow, Russia, 1985; p. 15. (In Russian)
Kopilov, A.L. The Map of the Seismic Microzonation of the Dushanbe AreaMade Using the Method of Acoustic Stiffness; Quarterly Report; GIINTIZ Institute: Dushanbe, Tajikistan, 1989; p. 170. (In Russian)
Kukhtikov, M.M. Tectonic Zonation and the Most Important Regularities of the Structure and Development of Gissaro-Alai in Paleozoic; Donish: Dushanbe, Tajikistan, 1968; pp. 34-43. (In Russian)
Bekker, Y.; Koshlakov, G.; Kuznetsov, E. On Tectonics of Dushanbe Region (Hissar Valley) Based on the Results of Geological and Geophysical Research on Prognostic Test Sites; Nauka: Moscow, Russia, 1974; pp. 24-29. (In Russian)
Babaev, A.M.; Lyskov, L. The Newest Tectonics of Dushanbe Polygon Area; Nauka: Moscow, Russia, 1985; pp. 29-41. (In Russian)
Durkin, A.T. The Structure of Earth Crust of Territory of Tajikistan on Materials of Deep Seismic Researches; Donish: Dushanbe, Tajikistan, 1993; pp. 54-63. (In Russian)
Abdrakhmatov, K. Establishment of the Central Asia Seismic Risk Initiative (CASRI); ISTC Project No. KR 1176, 2009; Technical Report on theWork Performed from: 02.01.2006 to 04.30.2009; Institute of Seismology, National Academia of Sciences: Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, 2009.
Mikhailova, N.; Mukambayev, A.; Aristova, I.; Kulakova, G.; Ullah, S.; Pilz, M.; Bindi, B. Central Asia earthquake catalogue from ancient time to 2009. Ann. Geophys. Italy 2015, 58, 102-111.
Tsshoher, V.O. Seismic Zonation of the Urban Area and Antiseismic Engineering Building Codes; Soviet Academy of Science: Moscow, Russia, 1938; p. 103. (In Russian)
Nazarov, A.G.; Nechaev, V.A. Seismic Microzonation Map-The Administrative Area of Stalinabad; Academy Science, USSR: Dushanbe, Tajikistan, 1953; p. 15. (In Russian)
Kogan, L.A.; Nechaev, V.A.; Romanov, O.G. Seismic Microzonation in Tajikistan; Donish: Dushanbe, Tajikistan, 1974; p. 379. (In Russian)
Oripov, G.O. The Map of Seismic Microzonation of the Area of Dushanbe; Quarterly Report; GIINTIZ Institute: Dushanbe, Tajikistan, 1975; p. 150. (In Russian)
Nakamura, Y.A. Method for Dynamic Characteristics Estimation of Subsurface Using Microtremor on the Ground Surface; Quarterly Report; Railway Technical Research Institute: Tokyo, Japan, 1989; Volume 30, pp. 25-33.
Wathelet, M. GEOPSY Geophysical Signal Database for Noise Array Processing. Software, LGIT, Grenoble. 2006. Available online: www.geopsy.org (accessed on 15 November 2019).
Nakamura, Y. What is the Nakamura’s method? Seismol. Res. Lett. 2019, 90, 1437-1443.
Bard, P.-Y. Microtremor measurements: A tool for site effect estimation. In The Effects of Surface Geology on Seismic Motion; Irikura, K., Kudo, K., Okada, H., Sasatami, T., Eds.; Balkema: Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 1999; pp. 1251-1279.
Bonnefoy-Claudet, S.; Köhler, A.; Cornou, C.; Wathelet, M.; Bard, P.-Y. Effects of Love waves on microtremor H/V ratio. Bull. Seism. Soc. Am. 2008, 98, 288-300.
Field, E.H.; Jacob, K.H. A comparison and test of various site response estimation techniques, including three that are nonreference-site dependent. Bull. Seism. Soc. Am. 1995, 86, 991-1005.
Fäh, D.; Kind, F.; Giardini, D. A theoretical investigation of average H/V ratios. Geophys. J. Int. 2001, 145, 535-549.
Bard, P.-Y.; SESAME-Team. Guidelines for the Implementation of the H/V Spectral Ratio Technique on Ambient Vibrations: Measurements, Processing, and Interpretations; SESAME European Research Project Report; European Commission-Research General Directorate Project No. EVG1-CT-2000-00026 SESAME; European Commission: Grenoble, France, 2004; p. 62. Available online: ftp: //ftp.geo.uib.no/pub/seismo/software/sesame/user-guidelines/sesame-hv-user-guidelines.pdf (accessed on 15 November 2019).
Al-Heety, A.J.R.; Shanshal, Z.M. Integration of Seismic Refraction Tomography and Electrical Resistivity Tomography in Engineering Geophysics for Soil Characterization. Arab J. Geosci. 2016, 9, 731-741.
Lankston, R.W. The seismic refraction method: A viable tool for mapping shallow targets into the 1990s. Geophysics 1989, 54, 1535-1542.
Yilmaz, O.; Eser, M.; Berilgen, M. Seismic, Geotechnical, and Earthquake Engineering Site Characterization. In Proceedings of the 76th Annual International Meeting; SEG, Expanded Abstract. SEG: Tulsa, OK, USA, 2006; Volume 25, pp. 1401-1405.
Demanet, D. Tomographies 2D et 3D à partir de Mesures Géophysiques en Surface et en Forage. Unpublished. Ph.D. Thesis, Liége University, Liége, Belgium, 2000; p. 153.
Claprood, M. Spatially Averaged Coherency Spectrum (SPAC) Ambient Noise Array Method. In Shear Wave Velocity Measurement Guidelines for Canadian Seismic Site Characterization in Soil and Rock; Geological Survey of Canada, Open File 7078; Hunter, J.A., Crow, H.L., Eds.; Geological Survey of Canada: Ottawa, BC, Canada, 2012; pp. 94-102.
Horike, M. Inversion of phase velocity of long-period microtremors to the S-wave-velocity structure down to the basement in urbanized areas. J. Phys. Earth 1985, 33, 59-96.
Ishida, H.; Nozawa, T.; Niwa, M. Estimation of deep surface structure based on phase velocities and spectral ratios of long period microtremors. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on the Effects of Surface Geology on Seismic Motion, Yokohama, Japan, 4 April 1998; Volume 2, pp. 697-704.
Satoh, T.; Kawase, H.; Shin’Ichi, M. Estimation of S-wave velocity structures in and around the Sendai Basin, Japan, using arrays records of microtremors. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 2001, 91, 206-218.
Yamanaka, H.; Takemura, M.; Ishida, H.; Niwa, M. Characteristics of long-period microtremors and their applicability in the exploration of deep sedimentary layers. Bull. Seism. Soc. Am. 1994, 84, 1831-1841.
Asten, M.W. On bias and noise in passive seismic data from finite circular array data processed using SPAC method. Geophysics 2006, 71, 153-162.
Aki, K. Space and time spectra of stationary stochastic waves, with special reference to microtremors. Bull. Earthq. Res. Inst. 1957, 35, 415-456.
Aki, K. A note on the use of microseisms in determining the shallow structure of the Earth’s crust. Geophysics 1965, 30, 665-666.
Ohori, M.; Nobata, A.; Wakamatsu, K. A comparison of ESAC and FK methods of estimating phase velocity using arbitrarily shaped microtremor arrays. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 2002, 92, 2323-2332.
Okada, H. The Microtremor Survey Method. American Geophysical Monograph 12; American Geophysical Union: Washington, DC, USA, 2003; pp. 1-14.
Borcherdt, R.D. Effects of local geology on ground motion near San Francisco Bay. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 1970, 60, 29-61.
Rodríguez, V.H.; Midorikawa, S. Comparison of spectral ratio techniques for estimation of site effects using microtremor data and earthquake motions recorded at the surface and in boreholes. Earthq. Eng. Struct. Dynam. 2003, 32, 1691-1714.
Bonilla, L.F.; Steidl, J.H.; Lindley, G.T.; Tumarkin, A.G.; Archuleta, R.J. Site amplification in the San Ferdinando Valley, California: Variability of site effect estimation using S-wave, coda, and H/V methods. Bull. Seism. Soc. Am. 1997, 87, 710-730.
Parolai, S.; Richwalski, S. The importance of converted waves in comparing H/V and RSM site response estimates. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 2004, 94, 304-313.
Wathelet, M.; Jean-Luc, C.; Cornou, C.; Di Giulio, G.; Guillier, B.; Ohrnberger, M.; Savvaidis, A. Geopsy: A User-Friendly Open-Source Tool Set for Ambient Vibration Processing. Seismol. Res. Lett. 2020, 91, 1878-1889.
Konno, K.; Ohmachi, T. Ground-motion characteristics estimated from spectral ratio between horizontal and vertical components of microtremor. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 1998, 88, 228-241.
Guéguen, P.; Chatelain, J.L.; Guillier, B.; Yepes, H. An indication of the soil topmost layer response in Quito (Ecuador) using noise H/V spectral ratio. Earthq. Eng. Soil Dynam. 2000, 19, 127-133.
Havenith, H.-B.; Jongmans, D.; Faccioli, E.; Abdrakhmatov, K.; Bard, P.-Y. Site Effect Analysis around the Seismically Induced Ananevo Rockslide, Kyrgyzstan. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 2002, 92, 3190-3209.
Wathelet, M. An improved neighborhood algorithm: Parameter conditions and dynamic scaling. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2008, 35, 1-5.