[en] A concerted effort to tackle the global health problem posed by traumatic brain injury (TBI) is long overdue. TBI is a public health challenge of vast, but insufficiently recognised, proportions. Worldwide, more than 50 million people have a TBI each year, and it is estimated that about half the world's population will have one or more TBIs over their lifetime. TBI is the leading cause of mortality in young adults and a major cause of death and disability across all ages in all countries, with a disproportionate burden of disability and death occurring in low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs). It has been estimated that TBI costs the global economy approximately $US400 billion annually. Deficiencies in prevention, care, and research urgently need to be addressed to reduce the huge burden and societal costs of TBI. This Commission highlights priorities and provides expert recommendations for all stakeholders—policy makers, funders, health-care professionals, researchers, and patient representatives—on clinical and research strategies to reduce this growing public health problem and improve the lives of people with TBI.
Disciplines :
Neurology
Author, co-author :
Maas, A. I. R.
Menon, D. K.
Adelson, P. D.
Andelic, N.
Bell, M. J.
Belli, A.
Bragge, P.
Brazinova, A.
Büki, A.
Chesnut, R. M.
Citerio, G.
Coburn, M.
Cooper, D. J.
Crowder, A. T.
Czeiter, E.
Czosnyka, M.
Diaz-Arrastia, R.
Dreier, J. P.
Duhaime, A.-C.
Ercole, A.
van Essen, T. A.
Feigin, V. L.
Gao, G.
Giacino, J.
Gonzalez-Lara, L. E.
Gruen, R. L.
Gupta, D.
Hartings, J. A.
Hill, S.
Jiang, J.-Y.
Ketharanathan, N.
Kompanje, E. J. O.
Lanyon, L.
Laureys, Steven ; Université de Liège - ULiège > GIGA Consciousness : Coma Science Group
Traumatic brain injury: integrated approaches to improve prevention, clinical care, and research
Publication date :
2017
Journal title :
The Lancet Neurology
ISSN :
1474-4422
eISSN :
1474-4465
Publisher :
Lancet Publishing Group
Volume :
16
Issue :
12
Pages :
987-1048
Peer reviewed :
Peer Reviewed verified by ORBi
Name of the research project :
The Collaborative European NeuroTrauma Effectiveness Research in Traumatic Brain Injury (CENTER-TBI) project
Funders :
EC - European Commission FRQS - Fonds de Recherche du Québec - Santé CIHR - Canadian Institutes of Health Research ZNS Hannelore Kohl Stiftung NIHR - National Institute for Health Research
Menon, DK, Schwab, K, Wright, DW, Maas, AIR, the Demographics and Clinical Assessment Working Group of the International and Interagency Initiative toward Common Data Elements for Research on Traumatic Brain Injury and Psychological Health. Position statement: definition of traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 91 (2010), 1637–1640.
Rosenfeld, JV, Maas, AI, Bragge, P, Morganti-Kossmann, MC, Manley, GT, Gruen, RL, Early management of severe traumatic brain injury. Lancet 380 (2012), 1088–1098.
Feigin, VLV, Theadom, A, Barker-Collo, S, et al., for the BIONIC Study Group. Incidence of traumatic brain injury in New Zealand: a population-based study. Lancet Neurol 12 (2013), 53–64.
Brazinova, A, Rehorcikova, V, Taylor, MS, et al. Epidemiology of traumatic brain injury in Europe: a living systematic review. J Neurotrauma, 2016 published online Aug 25. DOI:10.1089/neu.2015.4126.
Kleiven, S, Peloso, PM, von Holst, H, The epidemiology of head injuries in Sweden from 1987 to 2000. Inj Control Saf Promot 10 (2003), 173–180.
Koskinen, S, Alaranta, H, Traumatic brain injury in Finland 1991–2005: a nationwide register study of hospitalized and fatal TBI. Brain Inj 22 (2008), 205–214.
Maas, AIR, Stocchetti, N, Bullock, R, Moderate and severe traumatic brain injury in adults. Lancet Neurol 7 (2008), 728–741.
WHO. Neurological disorders: public health challenges. http://www.who.int/mental_health/neurology/neurological_disorders_report_web.pdf, 2006 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
The World Bank. World Development Indicators database. http://databank.worldbank.org/data/download/GDP.pdf, 2017 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Sener, S, Van Hecke, W, Feyen, BF, et al. Diffusion tensor imaging: a possible biomarker in severe traumatic brain injury and aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage?. Neurosurgery 79 (2016), 786–793.
Fleminger, S, Oliver, DL, Lovestone, S, Rabe-Hesketh, S, Giora, A, Head injury as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease: the evidence 10 years on; a partial replication. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 74 (2003), 857–862.
Li, W, Risacher, S, McAllister, T, Saykin, A, Traumatic brain injury and age at onset of cognitive impairment in older adults. J Neurol 263 (2016), 1280–1285.
Burke, JF, Stulc, JL, Skolarus, LE, Sears, ED, Zahuranec, DB, Morgenstern, LB, Traumatic brain injury may be an independent risk factor for stroke. Neurology 81 (2013), 33–39.
Liao, C-C, Chou, Y-C, Yeh, C-C, Hu, C-J, Chiu, W-T, Chen, T-L, Stroke risk and outcomes in patients with traumatic brain injury: 2 nationwide studies. Mayo Clin Proc 89 (2014), 163–172.
Jafari, S, Etminan, M, Aminzadeh, F, Samii, A, Head injury and risk of Parkinson disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Mov Disord 28 (2013), 1222–1229.
Gardner, RC, Burke, JF, Nettiksimmons, J, Goldman, S, Tanner, CM, Yaffe, K, Traumatic brain injury in later life increases risk for Parkinson disease. Ann Neurol 77 (2015), 987–995.
Crane, PK, Gibbons, LE, Dams-O'Connor, K, et al. Association of traumatic brain injury with late-life neurodegenerative conditions and neuropathologic findings. JAMA Neurol 73 (2016), 1062–1069.
Walsh, S, Donnan, J, Fortin, Y, et al. A systematic review of the risk factors associated with the onset and natural progression of epilepsy. Neurotoxicology 61 (2017), 64–77.
McMillan, TM, Teasdale, GM, Weir, CJ, Stewart, E, Death after head injury: the 13 year outcome of a case control study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 82 (2011), 931–935.
Stocchetti, N, Zanier, ER, Chronic impact of traumatic brain injury on outcome and quality of life: a narrative review. Crit Care, 20, 2016, 148.
Hay, J, Johnson, VE, Smith, DH, Stewart, W, Chronic traumatic encephalopathy: the neuropathological legacy of traumatic brain injury. Annu Rev Pathol 11 (2016), 21–45.
Stern, RA, Daneshvar, DH, Baugh, CM, et al. Clinical presentation of chronic traumatic encephalopathy. Neurology 81 (2013), 1122–1129.
Guskiewicz, KM, Marshall, SW, Bailes, J, et al. Association between recurrent concussion and late-life cognitive impairment in retired professional football players. Neurosurgery 57 (2005), 719–726 discussion 719–26.
Mez, J, Daneshvar, DH, Kiernan, PT, et al. Clinicopathological evaluation of chronic traumatic encephalopathy in players of American football. JAMA 318 (2017), 360–370.
Te Ao, B, Brown, P, Tobias, M, et al., the BIONIC Study Group. Cost of traumatic brain injury in New Zealand: evidence from a population-based study. Neurology 83 (2014), 1645–1652.
Stocchetti, N, Carbonara, M, Citerio, G, et al. Severe traumatic brain injury: targeted management in the intensive care unit. Lancet Neurol 16 (2017), 452–464.
Maegele, M, Schöchl, H, Menovsky, T, et al. Coagulopathy and haemorrhagic progression in traumatic brain injury: advances in mechanisms, diagnosis, and management. Lancet Neurol 16 (2017), 630–647.
Meyfroidt, G, Baguley, IJ, Menon, DK, Paroxysmal Sympathetic Hyperactivity: the storm after acute brain injury. Lancet Neurol 16 (2017), 721–729.
Wilson, LW, Stewart, W, Dams-O'Connor, K, et al. The chronic and evolving neurological consequences of traumatic brain injury. Lancet Neurol 16 (2017), 813–825.
Majdan, M, Plancikova, D, Brazinova, A, et al. Epidemiology of traumatic brain injuries in Europe: a cross-sectional analysis based on hospital discharge statistics and death certificates in 2012. Lancet Public Health 1 (2016), e76–e83.
Faul, M, Xu, L, Wald, MM, Coronado, VG, Traumatic brain injury in the United States: emergency department visits, hospitalizations and deaths 2002–2006. 2010, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Atlanta, GA https://www.cdc.gov/traumaticbraininjury/pdf/blue_book.pdf (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Report to Congress on traumatic brain injury in the United States: epidemiology and rehabilitation. https://www.cdc.gov/traumaticbraininjury/pdf/tbi_report_to_congress_epi_and_rehab-a.pdf, 2015 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Peeters, W, van den Brande, R, Polinder, S, et al. Epidemiology of traumatic brain injury in Europe. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 157 (2015), 1683–1696.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Rates of TBI-related emergency department visits by age group—United States, 2001–2010. https://www.cdc.gov/traumaticbraininjury/data/rates_ed_byage.html, 2010 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Nonfatal traumatic brain injuries related to sports and recreation activities among persons aged ≤19 years. United States, 2001–2009. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6039a1.htm, 2011 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Hootman, JM, Dick, R, Agel, J, Epidemiology of collegiate injuries for 15 sports: summary and recommendations for injury prevention initiatives. J Athl Train 42 (2007), 311–319.
Lincoln, AE, Caswell, SV, Almquist, JL, Dunn, RE, Norris, JB, Hinton, RY, Trends in concussion incidence in high school sports: a prospective 11-year study. Am J Sports Med 39 (2011), 958–963.
Risdall, JE, Menon, DK, Traumatic brain injury. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 366 (2011), 241–250.
Carroll, LJ, Cassidy, JD, Holm, L, Kraus, J, Coronado, VG, the WHO Collaborating Centre Task Force on Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. Methodological issues and research recommendations for mild traumatic brain injury. J Rehabil Med(43 suppl), 2004, 113–125.
American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine, Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Committee of the Head Injury Interdisciplinary Special Interest Group. Definition of mild traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 8 (1993), 86–87.
Ruff, RM, Iverson, GL, Barth, JT, Bush, SS, Broshek, DK, the NAN Policy and Planning Committee. Recommendations for diagnosing a mild traumatic brain injury: a National Academy of Neuropsychology education paper. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 24 (2009), 3–10.
Teasdale, G, Jennett, B, Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness. A practical scale. Lancet 2 (1974), 81–84.
Gabella, B, Hoffman, RE, Marine, WW, Stallones, L, Urban and rural traumatic brain injuries in Colorado. Ann Epidemiol 7 (1997), 207–212.
Langlois, JA, Kegler, SR, Butler, JA, et al. Traumatic brain injury-related hospital discharges. Results from a 14-state surveillance system, 1997. MMWR Surveill Summ 52 (2003), 1–20.
Rutland-Brown, W, Wallace, LJ, Faul, MD, Langlois, JA, Traumatic brain injury hospitalizations among American Indians/Alaska Natives. J Head Trauma Rehabil 20 (2005), 205–214.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Rates of hospitalization related to traumatic brain injury—nine states, 2003. MMWR Surveill Summ 56 (2007), 167–170.
Tieves, KS, Yang, H, Layde, PM, The epidemiology of traumatic brain injury in Wisconsin, 2001. WMJ 104 (2005), 22–25 54.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Traumatic brain injury—Colorado, Missouri, Oklahoma, and Utah, 1990–1993. MMWR Surveill Summ 46 (1997), 8–11.
Thurman, DJ, Jeppson, L, Burnett, CL, Beaudoin, DE, Rheinberger, MM, Sniezek, JE, Surveillance of traumatic brain injuries in Utah. West J Med 165 (1996), 192–196.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Traumatic brain injury among American Indians/Alaska Natives—United States, 1992–1996. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 51 (2002), 303–305.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Incidence rates of hospitalization related to traumatic brain injury—12 states, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 55 (2006), 201–204.
Taylor, CA, Bell, JM, Breiding, MJ, Xu, L, Traumatic brain injury-related emergency department visits, hospitalizations, and deaths—United States, 2007 and 2013. MMWR Surveill Summ 66 (2017), 1–16.
Colantonio, A, Croxford, R, Farooq, S, Laporte, A, Coyte, PC, Trends in hospitalization associated with traumatic brain injury in a publicly insured population, 1992–2002. J Trauma 66 (2009), 179–183.
Colantonio, A, Saverino, C, Zagorski, B, et al. Hospitalizations and emergency department visits for TBI in Ontario. Can J Neurol Sci 37 (2010), 783–790.
Fu, TS, Jing, R, Fu, WW, Cusimano, MD, Epidemiological trends of traumatic brain injury identified in the emergency department in a publicly-insured population, 2002–2010. PLoS One, 11, 2016, e0145469.
Nell, V, Brown, DS, Epidemiology of traumatic brain injury in Johannesburg—II. Morbidity, mortality and etiology. Soc Sci Med 33 (1991), 289–296.
Tagliaferri, F, Compagnone, C, Korsic, M, Servadei, F, Kraus, J, A systematic review of brain injury epidemiology in Europe. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 148 (2006), 255–268 discussion 268.
Eurostat. Population on 1 January. http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&language=en&pcode=tps00001&plugin=1, 2017 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Coronado, VG, McGuire, LC, Sarmiento, K, et al. Trends in traumatic brain injury in the U.S. and the public health response: 1995–2009. J Safety Res 43 (2012), 299–307.
United States Census Bureau. US and world population clock. http://www.census.gov/popclock/, 2017 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Faul, M, Xu, L, Wald, MM, Coronado, V, Dellinger, AM, Traumatic brain injury in the United States: national estimates of prevalence and incidence, 2002–2006. Inj Prev, 16(suppl 1), 2010, A268.
Wikipedia. List of countries by firearm-related death rate. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_firearm-related_death_rate (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Duquet, N, Van Alstein, M, Firearms and violent deaths in Europe: an exploratory analysis of the linkages between gun ownership, firearms legislation and violent death. 2015, Tomas Baum, Brussels.
Coronado, V, McGuire, L, Faul, M, Sugerman, D, Pearson, W, Traumatic brain injury epidemiology and public health issues. Zasler, ND, Katz, DI, Zafonte, RD, (eds.) Brain injury medicine, 2nd edn: Principles and practice, 2013, Demos Medical, New York, 84–100.
Wang, CC, Schoenberg, BS, Li, SC, Yang, YC, Cheng, XM, Bolis, CL, Brain injury due to head trauma. Epidemiology in urban areas of the People's Republic of China. Arch Neurol 43 (1986), 570–572.
Yang, YC, Li, SC, Cheng, XM, Wang, WZ, Wu, SP, The epidemiology of craniocerebral injury in 6 cities of China. Chin J Neurosurg 3 (1987), 23–24.
Zhu, GL, Song, JR, Zhang, DX, Wang, WZ, The epidemiology of head injury in rural and minority areas of China. Chin J Neurosurg, 1989, S44.
Jiang, J-Y, the Chinese Head Trauma Study Collaborators. Head trauma in China. Injury 44 (2013), 1453–1457.
Gong, R, Liang, YM, Gao, GY, Bao, YH, Chinese head trauma data bank: factors of short-term prognosis. Chin J Neurosurg 30 (2014), 56–58.
Huang, X, Car ownership modeling and forecast for China. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/39fd/4e7e44e2bd27a3de1a1a7bdbbe16b8576fc7.pdf, 2011 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
No driving after drinking. Auto & Safety 5 (2016), 84–86 (Chinese).
Cheng, P, Yin, P, Ning, P, et al. Trends in traumatic brain injury mortality in China, 2006–2013: A population-based longitudinal study. PLoS Med, 14, 2017, e1002332.
Hu, J, Yao, H, Liu, Y, et al. A prospective epidemiological investigation of the hospitalized patients with traumatic brain injury in eastern China. Chinese J Neurosurg 24 (2008), 88–91.
Jiang, J-Y, Feng, H, Fu, Z, et al. Violent head trauma in China: report of 2254 cases. Surg Neurol 68:suppl 2 (2007), S2–S5 discussion S5.
Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. National Crime Records Bureau Ministry of Home Affairs. Accidental deaths and suicides in India 2015. http://ncrb.nic.in/StatPublications/ADSI/ADSI2015/adsi-2015-full-report.pdf, 2016 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Burton, A, A key traumatic brain injury initiative in India. Lancet Neurol 15 (2016), 1011–1012.
Das, A, Botticello, AL, Wylie, GR, Radhakrishnan, K, Neurologic disability: a hidden epidemic for India. Neurology 79 (2012), 2146–2147.
Gururaj, G, Epidemiology of traumatic brain injuries: Indian scenario. Neurol Res 24 (2002), 24–28.
Gururaj, G, Road traffic deaths, injuries and disabilities in India: current scenario. Natl Med J India 21 (2008), 14–20.
Roy, N, Gerdin, M, Ghosh, S, et al. 30-day in-hospital trauma mortality in four urban university hospitals using an Indian trauma registry. World J Surg 40 (2016), 1299–1307.
Gupta, D, Sharma, D, Kannan, N, et al. Guideline adherence and outcomes in severe adult traumatic brain injury for the CHIRAG (Collaborative Head Injury and Guidelines) study. World Neurosurg 89 (2016), 169–179.
Ruikar, M, National statistics of road traffic accidents in India. J Orthop Traumatol Rehabil 6 (2013), 1–6.
Frost, RB, Farrer, TJ, Primosch, M, Hedges, DW, Prevalence of traumatic brain injury in the general adult population: a meta-analysis. Neuroepidemiology 40 (2013), 154–159.
McKinlay, A, Grace, RC, Horwood, LJ, Fergusson, DM, Ridder, EM, MacFarlane, MR, Prevalence of traumatic brain injury among children, adolescents and young adults: prospective evidence from a birth cohort. Brain Inj 22 (2008), 175–181.
Whiteneck, GG, Cuthbert, JP, Corrigan, JD, Bogner, JA, Prevalence of self-reported lifetime history of traumatic brain injury and associated disability. J Head Trauma Rehabil 31 (2016), E55–E62.
Zaloshnja, E, Miller, T, Langlois, JA, Selassie, AW, Prevalence of long-term disability from traumatic brain injury in the civilian population of the United States, 2005. J Head Trauma Rehabil 23 (2008), 394–400.
Steudel, WI, Cortbus, F, Schwerdtfeger, K, Epidemiology and prevention of fatal head injuries in Germany—trends and the impact of the reunification. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 147 (2005), 231–242 discussion 242.
McIntyre, A, Mehta, S, Aubut, J, Dijkers, M, Teasell, RW, Mortality among older adults after a traumatic brain injury: a meta-analysis. Brain Inj 27 (2013), 31–40.
Scholten, AC, Haagsma, JA, Panneman, MJ, van Beeck, EF, Polinder, S, Traumatic brain injury in the Netherlands: incidence, costs and disability-adjusted life years. PLoS One, 9, 2014, e110905.
Te Ao, B, Tobias, M, Ameratunga, S, et al., the BIONIC Study Group. Burden of traumatic brain injury in New Zealand: incidence, prevalence and disability-adjusted life years. Neuroepidemiology 44 (2015), 255–261.
Majdan, M, Plancikova, D, Maas, A, et al. Years of life lost due to traumatic brain injury in Europe: A cross-sectional analysis of 16 countries. PLoS Med, 14, 2017, e1002331.
McMillan, TM, Weir, CJ, Wainman-Lefley, J, Mortality and morbidity 15 years after hospital admission with mild head injury: a prospective case-controlled population study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 85 (2014), 1214–1220.
Haagsma, JA, Graetz, N, Bolliger, I, et al. The global burden of injury: incidence, mortality, disability-adjusted life years and time trends from the Global Burden of Disease study 2013. Inj Prev 22 (2016), 3–18.
Masel, BE, DeWitt, DS, Traumatic brain injury: a disease process, not an event. J Neurotrauma 27 (2010), 1529–1540.
Ventura, T, Harrison-Felix, C, Carlson, N, et al. Mortality after discharge from acute care hospitalization with traumatic brain injury: a population-based study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 91 (2010), 20–29.
Johnson, VE, Stewart, W, Smith, DH, Widespread τ and amyloid-β pathology many years after a single traumatic brain injury in humans. Brain Pathol 222 (2012), 142–149.
Raj, R, Kaprio, J, Korja, M, Mikkonen, ED, Jousilahti, P, Siironen, J, Risk of hospitalization with neurodegenerative disease after moderate-to-severe traumatic brain injury in the working-age population: a retrospective cohort study using the Finnish national health registries. PLoS Med, 14, 2017, e1002316.
Sayed, N, Culver, C, Dams-O'Connor, K, Hammond, F, Diaz-Arrastia, R, Clinical phenotype of dementia after traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 30 (2013), 1117–1122.
Shively, S, Scher, AI, Perl, DP, Diaz-Arrastia, R, Dementia resulting from traumatic brain injury: what is the pathology?. Arch Neurol 69 (2012), 1245–1251.
Corsellis, JAN, Bruton, CJ, Freeman-Browne, D, The aftermath of boxing. Psychol Med 3 (1973), 270–303.
McKee, AC, Cairns, NJ, Dickson, DW, et al., the TBI/CTE group. The first NINDS/NIBIB consensus meeting to define neuropathological criteria for the diagnosis of chronic traumatic encephalopathy. Acta Neuropathol 131 (2016), 75–86.
Kaup, AR, Yaffe, K, Reassuring news about football and cognitive decline? Not so fast. JAMA Neurol 74 (2017), 898–899.
Deshpande, SK, Hasegawa, RB, Rabinowitz, AR, et al. Association of playing high school football with cognition and mental health in later life. JAMA Neurol 74 (2017), 909–918.
Wood, RL, Accelerated cognitive aging following severe traumatic brain injury: a review. Brain Inj, 2017 published online July 7. DOI:10.1080/02699052.2017.1332387.
Newcombe, VFJ, Correia, MM, Ledig, C, et al. Dynamic changes in white matter abnormalities correlate with late improvement and deterioration following TBI: a diffusion tensor imaging study. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 30 (2016), 49–62.
Mac Donald, CL, Barber, J, Jordan, M, et al. Early clinical predictors of 5-year outcome after concussive blast traumatic brain injury. JAMA Neurol 74 (2017), 821–829.
Christensen, J, Traumatic brain injury: risks of epilepsy and implications for medicolegal assessment. Epilepsia 53:suppl 4 (2012), 43–47.
Diaz-Arrastia, R, Agostini, MA, Madden, CJ, Van Ness, PC, Posttraumatic epilepsy: the endophenotypes of a human model of epileptogenesis. Epilepsia 50:suppl 2 (2009), 14–20.
Perry, DC, Sturm, VE, Peterson, MJ, et al. Association of traumatic brain injury with subsequent neurological and psychiatric disease: a meta-analysis. J Neurosurg 124 (2016), 511–526.
Shivaji, T, Lee, A, Dougall, N, McMillan, T, Stark, C, The epidemiology of hospital treated traumatic brain injury in Scotland. BMC Neurol, 14, 2014, 2.
Pérez, K, Novoa, AM, Santamariña-Rubio, E, et al., the Working Group for Study of Injuries of Spanish Society of Epidemiology. Incidence trends of traumatic spinal cord injury and traumatic brain injury in Spain, 2000–2009. Accid Anal Prev 46 (2012), 37–44.
Dias, C, Rocha, J, Pereira, E, Cerejo, A, Traumatic brain injury in Portugal: trends in hospital admissions from 2000 to 2010. Acta Med Port 27 (2014), 349–356.
Fu, TS, Jing, R, McFaull, SR, Cusimano, MD, Recent trends in hospitalization and in-hospital mortality associated with traumatic brain injury in Canada: a nationwide, population-based study. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 79 (2015), 449–454.
Mauritz, W, Brazinova, A, Majdan, M, Rehorcikova, V, Leitgeb, J, Deaths due to traumatic brain injury in Austria between 1980 and 2012. Brain Inj 28 (2014), 1096–1101.
Stein, SC, Georgoff, P, Meghan, S, Mizra, K, Sonnad, SS, 150 years of treating severe traumatic brain injury: a systematic review of progress in mortality. J Neurotrauma 27 (2010), 1343–1353.
Arbogast, KB, Curry, AE, Pfeiffer, MR, et al. Point of health care entry for youth with concussion within a large pediatric care network. JAMA Pediatr, 170, 2016, e160294.
Thurman, DJ, The Epidemiology of traumatic brain injury in children and youths: a review of research since 1990. J Child Neurol 31 (2016), 20–27.
Howard, I, Joseph, JG, Natale, JE, Pediatric traumatic brain injury: do racial/ethnic disparities exist in brain injury severity, mortality, or medical disposition?. Ethn Dis, 15, 2005, S5-51 S5-56.
Coronado, VG, Xu, L, Basavaraju, SV, et al., the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Surveillance for traumatic brain injury-related deaths—United States, 1997–2007. MMWR Surveill Summ 60 (2011), 1–32.
Linton, KF, Kim, BJ, Traumatic brain injury as a result of violence in Native American and Black communities spanning from childhood to older adulthood. Brain Inj 28 (2014), 1076–1081.
WHO. World report on child injury prevention. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/43851/1/9789241563574_eng.pdf, 2008 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Spies, EL, Klevens, J, Fatal abusive head trauma among children aged <5 years—United States, 1999–2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 65 (2016), 505–509.
Davies, FC, Coats, TJ, Fisher, R, Lawrence, T, Lecky, FE, A profile of suspected child abuse as a subgroup of major trauma patients. Emerg Med J 32 (2015), 921–925.
Mehta, A, Kochanek, PM, Tyler-Kabara, E, et al. Relationship of intracranial pressure and cerebral perfusion pressure with outcome in young children after severe traumatic brain injury. Dev Neurosci 32 (2010), 413–419.
Keenan, HT, Runyan, DK, Marshall, SW, Nocera, MA, Merten, DF, Sinal, SH, A population-based study of inflicted traumatic brain injury in young children. JAMA 290 (2003), 621–626.
Miller Ferguson, N, Sarnaik, A, Miles, D, et al., the Investigators of the Approaches and Decisions in Acute Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury (ADAPT) Trial. Abusive head trauma and mortality—an analysis from an international comparative effectiveness study of children with severe traumatic brain injury. Crit Care Med 45 (2017), 1398–1407.
EuroSafe. Injuries in the European Union: Summary of injury statistics for the years 2008–2010. 4th edn., 2013, European Association for Injury Prevention and Safety Promotion (EuroSafe), Amsterdam https://www.econbiz.de/Record/injuries-in-the-european-union-summary-of-injury-statistics-for-the-years-2008-2010/10010224671 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) and HelpAge International. Ageing in the twenty-first century: a celebration and a challenge. http://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/Ageingreport.pdf, 2012 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Flaada, JT, Leibson, CL, Mandrekar, JN, et al. Relative risk of mortality after traumatic brain injury: a population-based study of the role of age and injury severity. J Neurotrauma 24 (2007), 435–445.
Coronado, VG, Thomas, KE, Sattin, RW, Johnson, RL, The CDC traumatic brain injury surveillance system: characteristics of persons aged 65 years and older hospitalized with a TBI. J Head Trauma Rehabil 20 (2005), 215–228.
Woods, AJ, Porges, EC, Bryant, VE, et al. Current heavy alcohol consumption is associated with greater cognitive impairment in older adults. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 40 (2016), 2435–2444.
Hukkelhoven, CW, Steyerberg, EW, Rampen, AJJA, et al. Patient age and outcome following severe traumatic brain injury: an analysis of 5600 patients. J Neurosurg 99 (2003), 666–673.
Mushkudiani, NA, Engel, DC, Steyerberg, EW, et al. Prognostic value of demographic characteristics in traumatic brain injury: results from the IMPACT study. J Neurotrauma 24 (2007), 259–269.
Kirkman, MA, Jenks, T, Bouamra, O, Edwards, A, Yates, D, Wilson, MH, Increased mortality associated with cerebral contusions following trauma in the elderly: bad patients or bad management?. J Neurotrauma 30 (2013), 1385–1390.
Stocchetti, N, Paternò, R, Citerio, G, Beretta, L, Colombo, A, Traumatic brain injury in an aging population. J Neurotrauma 29 (2012), 1119–1125.
Cantu, RC, Second-impact syndrome. Clin Sports Med 17 (1998), 37–44.
Bey, T, Ostick, B, Second impact syndrome. West J Emerg Med 10 (2009), 6–10.
Lehman, EJ, Hein, MJ, Baron, SL, Gersic, CM, Neurodegenerative causes of death among retired National Football League players. Neurology 79 (2012), 1970–1974.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Nonfatal traumatic brain injuries from sports and recreation activities–United States, 2001–2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 56 (2007), 733–737.
American Association of Neurological Surgeons. Sports-related head injury. http://www.aans.org/patient information/conditions%20and%20treatments/sports-relatedheadinjury.aspx, 2014 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Theadom, A, Starkey, NJ, Dowell, T, et al., the BIONIC Research Group. Sports-related brain injury in the general population: an epidemiological study. J Sci Med Sport 17 (2014), 591–596.
Pfister, T, Pfister, K, Hagel, B, Ghali, WA, Ronksley, PE, The incidence of concussion in youth sports: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med 50 (2016), 292–297.
Marar, M, McIlvain, NM, Fields, SK, Comstock, RD, Epidemiology of concussions among United States high school athletes in 20 sports. Am J Sports Med 40 (2012), 747–755.
McCrory, P, Meeuwisse, W, Aubry, M, et al. Consensus statement on concussion in sport: the 4th International Conference on Concussion in Sport held in Zurich, November 2012. Br J Sport Med 47 (2013), 250–258.
England Professional Rugby Injury Surveillance Project Steering Group. England Professional Rugby Injury Surveillance Project: 2014–2015 season report. http://www.englandrugby.com/mm/Document/General/General/01/31/72/86/InjurySurveillanceReport_2014-15_SINGLE_22Mar16_English.pdf, 2016 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
England Professional Rugby Injury Surveillance Project Steering Group. England Professional Rugby Injury Surveillance Project: 2015–2016 season report. http://www.englandrugby.com/news/results-injury-study-revealed/, 2017 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
McCrea, M, Hammeke, T, Olsen, G, Leo, P, Guskiewicz, K, Unreported concussion in high school football players: implications for prevention. Clin J Sport Med 14 (2004), 13–17.
Defense Health Board. Management of traumatic brain injury in tactical combat casualty care 2012–04. https://www.naemt.org/docs/default-source/education-documents/tccc/10-9-15-updates/dhb-memo-120726-traumatic-brain-injury.pdf?sfvrsn=2, 2012 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Department of Defense Department of Veterans Affairs, Department of Health and Human Services. Interagency Task Force on Military and Veterans Mental Health: National Research Action Plan: 2016 progress report. https://www.mentalhealth.va.gov/docs/ITF_2016_Annual_Report_November_2016.pdf, 2016 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Kotwal, RS, Howard, JT, Orman, JA, et al. The effect of a golden hour policy on the morbidity and mortality of combat casualties. JAMA Surg 151 (2016), 15–24.
Rasmussen, C, Baer, D, Doll, B, Caravalho, J, In the ‘golden hour’. Army AL&T Mag, 2015, 80–85.
The National Academies of Sciences E and M. A national trauma care system: integrating military and civilian trauma systems to achieve zero preventable deaths after injury. https://www.nap.edu/catalog/23511/a-national-trauma-care-system-integrating-military-and-civilian-trauma, 2016 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Rasmussen, TE, Reilly, PA, Baer, DG, Why military medical research?. Mil Med 179:suppl (2014), 1–2.
Williams, WH, Chitsabesan, P, Young people with traumatic brain injury in custody: an evaluation of a linkworker service for Barrow Cadbury Trust and The Disabilities Trust. https://www.barrowcadbury.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Disability_Trust_linkworker_2016Lores.pdf, 2016 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Timonen, M, Miettunen, J, Hakko, H, et al. The association of preceding traumatic brain injury with mental disorders, alcoholism and criminality: the northern Finland 1966 birth cohort study. Psychiatry Res 113 (2002), 217–226.
Fazel, S, Lichtenstein, P, Grann, M, Långström, N, Risk of violent crime in individuals with epilepsy and traumatic brain injury: a 35-year Swedish population study. PLoS Med, 8, 2011, e1001150.
Hughes, N, Williams, WH, Chitsabesan, P, Walesby, RC, Mounce, LT, Clasby, B, The prevalence of traumatic brain injury among young offenders in custody: a systematic review. J Head Trauma Rehabil 30 (2015), 94–105.
Williams, WH, Mewse, AJ, Tonks, J, Mills, S, Burgess, CN, Cordan, G, Traumatic brain injury in a prison population: prevalence and risk for re-offending. Brain Inj 24 (2010), 1184–1188.
Williams, WH, Cordan, G, Mewse, AJ, Tonks, J, Burgess, CN, Self-reported traumatic brain injury in male young offenders: a risk factor for re-offending, poor mental health and violence?. Neuropsychol Rehabil 20 (2010), 801–812.
Chitsabesan, P, Lennox, C, Williams, H, Tariq, O, Shaw, J, Traumatic brain injury in juvenile offenders: findings from the comprehensive health assessment tool study and the development of a specialist linkworker service. J Head Trauma Rehabil 30 (2015), 106–115.
Schiltz, K, Witzel, JG, Bausch-Hölterhoff, J, Bogerts, B, High prevalence of brain pathology in violent prisoners: a qualitative CT and MRI scan study. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 263 (2013), 607–616.
Ornstein, TJ, Sagar, S, Schachar, RJ, et al. Neuropsychological performance of youth with secondary attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder 6- and 12-months after traumatic brain injury. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 20 (2014), 971–981.
Lichtenstein, P, Halldner, L, Zetterqvist, J, et al. Medication for attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder and criminality. N Engl J Med 367 (2012), 2006–2014.
Fraser, GE, The estimation of disease frequency using a population sample. Int J Epidemiol 7 (1978), 277–284.
Tilling, K, Sterne, JA, Wolfe, CD, Estimation of the incidence of stroke using a capture–recapture model including covariates. Int J Epidemiol 30 (2001), 1351–1359 discussion 1359–60.
Eurostat. European Health Interview Survey. http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/microdata/european-health-interview-survey (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Gustavsson, A, Svensson, M, Jacobi, F, et al., the CDBE2010 Study Group. Cost of disorders of the brain in Europe 2010. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 21 (2011), 718–779.
Olesen, J, Gustavsson, A, Svensson, M, Wittchen, HU, Jönsson, B, the CDBE2010 Study Group and the European Brain Council. The economic cost of brain disorders in Europe. Eur J Neurol 19 (2012), 155–162.
Finkelstein, E, Corso, P, Miller, T, Incidence and economic burden of injuries in the United States. 2006, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Orman, J, Kraus, J, Zaloshnja, E, Epidemiology. Silver, JM, McAllister, TW, Yudofsky, SC, (eds.) Textbook of traumatic brain injury, 2nd edn., 2011, American Psychiatric Association Publishing, Washington, DC, 3–22.
The Victorian Neurotrauma Initiative. The economic cost of spinal cord injury and traumatic brain injury in Australia. https://www.tac.vic.gov.au/about-the-tac/our-organisation/research/tac-neurotrauma-research/vni/the20economic20cost20of20spinal20cord20injury20and20traumatic20brain20injury20in20australia.pdf, 2009 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Faul, M, Wald, MM, Rutland-Brown, W, Sullivent, EE, Sattin, RW, Using a cost-benefit analysis to estimate outcomes of a clinical treatment guideline: testing the Brain Trauma Foundation guidelines for the treatment of severe traumatic brain injury. J Trauma 63 (2007), 1271–1278.
Ponsford, JL, Spitz, G, Cromarty, F, Gifford, D, Attwood, D, Costs of care after traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 30 (2013), 1498–1505.
Spitz, G, McKenzie, D, Attwood, D, Ponsford, JL, Cost prediction following traumatic brain injury: model development and validation. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 87 (2016), 173–180.
Tenovuo, O, Bullock, M, Zafonte, R, International systems of care and research agendas. Zasler, ND, Katz, DI, Zafonte, RD, (eds.) Brain injury medicine, 2nd edn: Principles and practice, 2013, Demos Medical, New York, 40–52.
“Nuovo codice della strada, articolo 208, titolo VI”, Italian Parliament decision issued on April 30, 1992, number 285 and subsequent modifications.
Nakahara, S, Ichikawa, M, Kimura, A, Population strategies and high-risk-individual strategies for road safety in Japan. Health Policy 100 (2011), 247–255.
Youngers, EH, Zundel, K, Gerhardstein, D, et al. Comprehensive review of the ThinkFirst injury prevention programs: a 30-year success story for organized neurosurgery. Neurosurgery 81 (2017), 416–421.
Rubiano, AM, Carney, N, Chesnut, R, Puyana, JC, Global neurotrauma research challenges and opportunities. Nature 527 (2015), S193–S197.
WHO. Decade of action for road safety 2011–2020. Global launch. http://www.who.int/roadsafety/publications/global_launch.pdf, 2011 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Majdan, M, Rusnak, M, Rehorcikova, V, Brazinova, A, Leitgeb, J, Mauritz, W, Epidemiology and patterns of transport-related fatalities in Austria 1980–2012. Traffic Inj Prev 16 (2015), 450–455.
WHO. Global status report on road safety 2015. http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/road_safety_status/2015/en/, 2015 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Wilson, C, Willis, C, Hendrikz, JK, Le Brocque, R, Bellamy, N, Speed cameras for the prevention of road traffic injuries and deaths. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 11, 2010 CD004607.
Richter, ED, Berman, T, Friedman, L, Ben-David, G, Speed, road injury, and public health. Annu Rev Public Health 27 (2006), 125–152.
Bunn, F, Collier, T, Frost, C, Ker, K, Roberts, I, Wentz, R, Traffic calming for the prevention of road traffic injuries: systematic review and meta-analysis. Inj Prev 9 (2003), 200–204.
Bunn, F, Collier, T, Frost, C, Ker, K, Roberts, I, Wentz, R, Area-wide traffic calming for preventing traffic related injuries. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 1, 2003 CD003110.
Norton, R, Kobusingye, O, Injuries. N Engl J Med 368 (2013), 1723–1730.
Aeron-Thomas, AS, Hess, S, Red-light cameras for the prevention of road traffic crashes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2, 2005 CD003862.
Beyer, FR, Ker, K, Street lighting for preventing road traffic injuries. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 1, 2009 CD004728.
Macpherson, A, Spinks, A, Bicycle helmet legislation for the uptake of helmet use and prevention of head injuries. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 3, 2008 CD005401.
Debinski, B, Clegg Smith, K, Gielen, A, Public opinion on motor vehicle-related injury prevention policies: a systematic review of a decade of research. Traffic Inj Prev 15 (2014), 243–251.
Sethi, M, Heidenberg, J, Wall, SP, et al. Bicycle helmets are highly protective against traumatic brain injury within a dense urban setting. Injury 46 (2015), 2483–2490.
Chiu, WT, Kuo, CY, Hung, CC, Chen, M, The effect of the Taiwan motorcycle helmet use law on head injuries. Am J Public Health 90 (2000), 793–796.
Busko, A, Hubbard, Z, Zakrison, T, Motorcycle-helmet laws and public health. N Engl J Med 376 (2017), 1208–1209.
Coben, JH, Zhu, M, Keeping an eye on distracted driving. JAMA 309 (2013), 877–878.
Sahler, CS, Greenwald, BD, Traumatic brain injury in sports: a review. Rehabil Res Pract, 2012, 2012, 659652.
Nordström, A, Nordström, P, Ekstrand, J, Sports-related concussion increases the risk of subsequent injury by about 50% in elite male football players. Br J Sports Med 48 (2014), 1447–1450.
Vagnozzi, R, Tavazzi, B, Signoretti, S, et al. Temporal window of metabolic brain vulnerability to concussions: mitochondrial-related impairment—part I. Neurosurgery 61 (2007), 379–388 discussion 388–89.
Fédération Internationale de Football Association. FIFA's Medical Committee proposes new protocol for the management of concussion. http://www.fifa.com/development/news/y=2014/m=9/news=fifa-s-medical-committee-proposes-new-protocol-for-the-management-of-c-2443024.html, 2014 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
McCrory, P, Meeuwisse, W, Dvořák, J, et al. Consensus statement on concussion in sport—the 5th international conference on concussion in sport held in Berlin, October 2016. Br J Sports Med 51 (2017), 838–847.
Davis, GA, Ellenbogen, RG, Bailes, J, et al. The Berlin International Consensus Meeting on Concussion in Sport. Neurosurgery, 2017 published online June 30. DOI:10.1093/neuros/nyx344.
Harmon, KG, Drezner, JA, Gammons, M, et al. American Medical Society for Sports Medicine position statement: concussion in sport. Br J Sports Med 47 (2013), 15–26.
Giza, CC, Kutcher, JS, Ashwal, S, et al. Summary of evidence-based guideline update: evaluation and management of concussion in sports: report of the Guideline Development Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 80 (2013), 2250–2257.
Turner, C, McClure, R, Nixon, J, Spinks, A, Community-based programs to promote car seat restraints in children 0–16 years—a systematic review. Accid Anal Prev 37 (2005), 77–83.
Safe Kids Worldwide. Child safety state law tracker. https://www.safekids.org/statelaws?gclid=CjwKEAiA3NTFBRDKheuO6IG43VQSJAA74F77xQ-fsuNl84zH_kLy_Nd5_-x6e6JORg5A6cO8aq2jVxoCd2Xw_wcB#PA, 2017 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
US Preventive Services Task Force. Counseling about proper use of motor vehicle occupant restraints and avoidance of alcohol use while driving: recommendation statement. Am Fam Physician 78 (2008), 373–376.
European Commission. Safety in the automotive sector. https://ec.europa.eu/growth/sectors/automotive/safety_en, 2014 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Gov.uk. The Highway Code, road safety and vehicle rules. https://www.gov.uk/seat-belts-law (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Child Accident Prevention Foundation of Australia. Child restraint guidelines: national guidelines for the safe restraint of children travelling in motor vehicles. http://www.kidsafe.com.au/crguidelines, 2013 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Lei, H, Yang, J, Liu, X, Chen, X, Li, L, Has child restraint system use increased among parents of children in Shantou, China?. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 13, 2016, E964.
Gruss, SM, Is safe haven legislation an efficacious policy response to infant abandonment: a biopsychosocial profile of the target population. PhD thesis. 2006, Virginia Commonwealth University.
Hartholt, KA, Van Lieshout, EM, Polinder, S, Panneman, MJ, Van der Cammen, TJ, Patka, P, Rapid increase in hospitalizations resulting from fall-related traumatic head injury in older adults in The Netherlands 1986–2008. J Neurotrauma 28 (2011), 739–744.
Harvey, LA, Close, JC, Traumatic brain injury in older adults: characteristics, causes and consequences. Injury 43 (2012), 1821–1826.
Murphy, TE, Baker, DI, Leo-Summers, LS, Tinetti, ME, Trends in fall-related traumatic brain injury among older persons in Connecticut from 2000–2007. J Gerontol Geriatr Res, 3, 2014, 1000168.
Dams-O'Connor, K, Gibbons, LE, Landau, A, Larson, EB, Crane, PK, Health problems precede traumatic brain injury in older adults. J Am Geriatr Soc 64 (2016), 844–848.
Lyndon, H, Stevens, G, Toolkit for general practice in supporting older people with frailty and achieving the requirements of the Unplanned Admissions Enhanced Service (2014). http://www.bgs.org.uk/pdfs/2015_gen_prac_frailty_toolkit.pdf, 2014 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Dykes, PC, Carroll, DL, Hurley, A, et al. Fall prevention in acute care hospitals: a randomized trial. JAMA 304 (2010), 1912–1918.
Murphy, TE, Baker, DI, Leo-Summers, LS, Allore, HG, Tinetti, ME, Association between treatment or usual care region and hospitalization for fall-related traumatic brain injury in the Connecticut Collaboration for Fall Prevention. J Am Geriatr Soc 61 (2013), 1763–1767.
Baldwin, G, Breiding, M, Sleet, D, Using the public health model to address unintentional injuries and TBI: a perspective from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). NeuroRehabilitation 39 (2016), 345–349.
Gillespie, LD, Robertson, MC, Gillespie, WJ, et al. Interventions for preventing falls in older people living in the community. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 9, 2012 CD007146.
Phelan, EA, Mahoney, JE, Voit, JC, Stevens, JA, Assessment and management of fall risk in primary care settings. Med Clin North Am 99 (2015), 281–293.
Engel, DC, Mikocka-Walus, A, Cameron, PA, Maegele, M, Pre-hospital and in-hospital parameters and outcomes in patients with traumatic brain injury: a comparison between German and Australian trauma registries. Injury 41 (2010), 901–906.
Lenartova, L, Janciak, I, Wilbacher, I, Rusnak, M, Mauritz, W, the Austrian Severe TBI Study Investigators. Severe traumatic brain injury in Austria III: prehospital status and treatment. Wien Klin Wochenschr 119 (2007), 35–45.
Gabbe, BJ, Biostat, GD, Lecky, FE, et al. The effect of an organized trauma system on mortality in major trauma involving serious head injury: a comparison of the United Kingdom and Victoria, Australia. Ann Surg 253 (2011), 138–143.
Tiesman, H, Young, T, Torner, JC, McMahon, M, Peek-Asa, C, Fiedler, J, Effects of a rural trauma system on traumatic brain injuries. J Neurotrauma 24 (2007), 1189–1197.
Sharma, S, Gomez, D, de Mestral, C, Hsiao, M, Rutka, J, Nathens, AB, Emergency access to neurosurgical care for patients with traumatic brain injury. J Am Coll Surg 218 (2014), 51–57.
Sasser, S, Varghese, M, Kellermann, A, Lormand, J, Prehospital trauma care systems. http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/publications/services/39162_oms_new.pdf, 2005 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Estenssoro, E, Alegría, L, Murias, G, et al., the Latin-American Intensive Care Network (LIVEN). Organizational issues, structure, and processes of care in 257 ICUs in Latin America: a study from the Latin America Intensive Care Network. Crit Care Med 45 (2017), 1325–1336.
Chesnut, RM, Temkin, N, Carney, N, et al., for the Global Neurotrauma Research Group. A trial of intracranial-pressure monitoring in traumatic brain injury. N Engl J Med 367 (2012), 2471–2481.
Chinese Congress of Neurological Surgeons CNEC. Chinese surgical guidelines for management of traumatic brain injury. Chin J Neurosurg 25 (2009), 100–101.
Chinese Congress of Neurological Surgeons CNEC. The Chinese guidelines for drug management of traumatic brain injury. Chin J Neurosurg 24 (2008), 723–775.
Chinese Congress of Neurological Surgeons CNEC. Chinese expert consensus on intracranial pressure monitoring for traumatic brain injury. Chin J Neurosurg 27 (2011), 1073–1075.
Chinese Congress of Neurological Surgeons CNEC. Chinese expert consensus on decompressive craniectomy for traumatic brain injury. Chin J Neurosurg 29 (2013), 967–969.
Williams, T, Finn, J, Fatovich, D, Jacobs, I, Outcomes of different health care contexts for direct transport to a trauma center versus initial secondary center care: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Prehosp Emerg Care 17 (2013), 442–457.
Roudsari, BS, Nathens, AB, Arreola-Risa, C, et al. Emergency medical service (EMS) systems in developed and developing countries. Injury 38 (2007), 1001–1013.
Timm, A, Maegele, M, Lefering, R, Wendt, K, Wyen, H, the TraumaRegister DGU. Pre-hospital rescue times and actions in severe trauma. A comparison between two trauma systems: Germany and the Netherlands. Injury 45:suppl 3 (2014), S43–S52.
Tan, XX, Clement, ND, Frink, M, Hildebrand, F, Krettek, C, Probst, C, Pre-hospital trauma care: a comparison of two healthcare systems. Indian J Crit Care Med 16 (2012), 22–27.
Cnossen, MC, Scholten, AC, Lingsma, HF, et al. Adherence to guidelines in adult patients with traumatic brain injury: a living systematic review. J Neurotrauma 33 (2016), 1–14.
Fang, R, Markandaya, M, DuBose, JJ, Cancio, LC, Shackelford, S, Blackbourne, LH, Early in-theater management of combat-related traumatic brain injury: A prospective, observational study to identify opportunities for performance improvement. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 79:suppl 2 (2015), S181–S187.
MacDonald, CL, Johnson, AM, Wierzechowski, L, et al. Outcome trends after US military concussive traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 34 (2017), 2206–2219.
Patel, HC, Bouamra, O, Woodford, M, King, AT, Yates, DW, Lecky, FE, the Trauma Audit and Research Network. Trends in head injury outcome from 1989 to 2003 and the effect of neurosurgical care: an observational study. Lancet 366 (2005), 1538–1544.
Brown, JB, Stassen, NA, Cheng, JD, Sangosanya, AT, Bankey, PE, Gestring, ML, Trauma center designation correlates with functional independence after severe but not moderate traumatic brain injury. J Trauma 69 (2010), 263–269.
Alali, AS, Fowler, RA, Mainprize, TG, et al. Intracranial pressure monitoring in severe traumatic brain injury: results from the American College of Surgeons Trauma Quality Improvement Program. J Neurotrauma 30 (2013), 1737–1746.
Patel, HC, Menon, DK, Tebbs, S, Hawker, R, Hutchinson, PJ, Kirkpatrick, PJ, Specialist neurocritical care and outcome from head injury. Intensive Care Med 28 (2002), 547–553.
Bulger, EM, Nathens, AB, Rivara, FP, Moore, M, MacKenzie, EJ, Jurkovich, GJ, the Brain Trauma Foundation. Management of severe head injury: institutional variations in care and effect on outcome. Crit Care Med 30 (2002), 1870–1876.
Fakhry, SM, Trask, AL, Waller, MA, Watts, DD, the IRTC Neurotrauma Task Force. Management of brain-injured patients by an evidence-based medicine protocol improves outcomes and decreases hospital charges. J Trauma 56 (2004), 492–499 discussion 499–500.
Elf, K, Nilsson, P, Enblad, P, Outcome after traumatic brain injury improved by an organized secondary insult program and standardized neurointensive care. Crit Care Med 30 (2002), 2129–2134.
Fuller, G, Bouamra, O, Woodford, M, et al. The effect of specialist neurosciences care on outcome in adult severe head injury: a cohort study. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol 23 (2011), 198–205.
Lecky, F, Russell, W, Fuller, G, et al. The Head Injury Transportation Straight to Neurosurgery (HITS-NS) randomised trial: a feasibility study. Health Technol Assess 20 (2016), 1–198.
Harrison, DA, Prabhu, G, Grieve, R, et al. Risk Adjustment In Neurocritical care (RAIN)—prospective validation of risk prediction models for adult patients with acute traumatic brain injury to use to evaluate the optimum location and comparative costs of neurocritical care: a cohort study. Health Technol Assess 17 (2013), vii–viii 1–350.
Spaite, DW, Hu, C, Bobrow, BJ, et al. Mortality and prehospital blood pressure in patients with major traumatic brain injury: implications for hypotension threshold. JAMA Surg 152 (2016), 360–368.
National Clinical Guideline Centre. Head injury: triage, assessment, investigation and early management of head injury in children, young people and adults. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0068963/pdf/PubMedHealth_PMH0068963.pdf, 2014 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Johnson, DL, Krishnamurthy, S, Send severely head-injured children to a pediatric trauma center. Pediatr Neurosurg 25 (1996), 309–314.
Potoka, DA, Schall, LC, Gardner, MJ, Stafford, PW, Peitzman, AB, Ford, HR, Impact of pediatric trauma centers on mortality in a statewide system. J Trauma 49 (2000), 237–245.
Boake, C, McCauley, SR, Levin, HS, et al. Diagnostic criteria for postconcussional syndrome after mild to moderate traumatic brain injury. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 17 (2005), 350–356.
Reuben, A, Sampson, P, Harris, AR, Williams, H, Yates, P, Postconcussion syndrome (PCS) in the emergency department: predicting and pre-empting persistent symptoms following a mild traumatic brain injury. Emerg Med J 31 (2014), 72–77.
Cnossen, MC, Polinder, S, Lingsma, HF, Maas, AI, Menon, D, Steyerberg, EW, the CENTER-TBI Investigators and Participants. Variation in structure and process of care in traumatic brain injury: provider profiles of European neurotrauma centers participating in the CENTER-TBI study. PLoS One, 11, 2016, e0161367.
Foks, K, Cnossen, M, Dippel, D, et al. Management of mild traumatic brain injury at the emergency department and hospital admission in Europe: a survey of 71 neurotrauma centers participating in the CENTER-TBI study. J Neurotrauma 34 (2017), 2529–2535.
Andelic, N, Ye, J, Tornas, S, et al. Cost-effectiveness analysis of an early-initiated, continuous chain of rehabilitation after severe traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 31 (2014), 1313–1320.
Katz, DI, Polyak, M, Coughlan, D, Nichols, M, Roche, A, Natural history of recovery from brain injury after prolonged disorders of consciousness: outcome of patients admitted to inpatient rehabilitation with 1–4 year follow-up. Prog Brain Res 177 (2009), 73–88.
Nakase-Richardson, R, Whyte, J, Giacino, JT, et al. Longitudinal outcome of patients with disordered consciousness in the NIDRR TBI Model Systems Programs. J Neurotrauma 29 (2012), 59–65.
Turner-Stokes, L, Disler, PB, Nair, A, Wade, DT, Multi-disciplinary rehabilitation for acquired brain injury in adults of working age. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 3, 2005 CD004170.
Jourdan, C, Bayen, E, Bosserelle, V, et al., the Members of the Steering Committee of the PariS-TBI Study. Referral to rehabilitation after severe traumatic brain injury: results from the PariS-TBI Study. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 27 (2013), 35–44.
Cuthbert, JP, Corrigan, JD, Harrison-Felix, C, et al. Factors that predict acute hospitalization discharge disposition for adults with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil, 92, 2011, 721 30.e3.
Grieve, R, Sadique, Z, Gomes, M, et al., the Risk Adjustment In Neurocritical care (RAIN) Study Investigators. An evaluation of the clinical and cost-effectiveness of alternative care locations for critically ill adult patients with acute traumatic brain injury. Br J Neurosurg 30 (2016), 388–396.
Holmes, MW, Goodacre, S, Stevenson, MD, Pandor, A, Pickering, A, The cost-effectiveness of diagnostic management strategies for children with minor head injury. Arch Dis Child 98 (2013), 939–944.
Holmes, MW, Goodacre, S, Stevenson, MD, Pandor, A, Pickering, A, The cost-effectiveness of diagnostic management strategies for adults with minor head injury. Injury 43 (2012), 1423–1431.
Calcagnile, O, Anell, A, Undén, J, The addition of S100B to guidelines for management of mild head injury is potentially cost saving. BMC Neurol, 16, 2016, 200.
Alali, AS, Burton, K, Fowler, RA, et al. Economic evaluations in the diagnosis and management of traumatic brain injury: a systematic review and analysis of quality. Value Health 18 (2015), 721–734.
National Institutes of Health. Rehabilitation of persons with traumatic brain injury. NIH Consensus Statement 16 (1998), 1–41 https://consensus.nih.gov/1998/1998traumaticbraininjury109html.htm (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Lannin, NA, Laver, K, Henry, K, et al. Effects of case management after brain injury: a systematic review. NeuroRehabilitation 35 (2014), 635–641.
Mock, C, Kobusingye, O, Joshipura, M, Nguyen, S, Arreola-Risa, C, Strengthening trauma and critical care globally. Curr Opin Crit Care 11 (2005), 568–575.
Hyder, AA, Wunderlich, CA, Puvanachandra, P, Gururaj, G, Kobusingye, OC, The impact of traumatic brain injuries: a global perspective. NeuroRehabilitation 22 (2007), 341–353.
Jayaraman, S, Ozgediz, D, Miyamoto, J, et al. Disparities in injury mortality between Uganda and the United States: comparative analysis of a neglected disease. World J Surg 35 (2011), 505–511.
Meara, JG, Leather, AJM, Hagander, L, et al. Global Surgery 2030: evidence and solutions for achieving health, welfare, and economic development. Lancet 386 (2015), 569–624.
Roberts, I, Yates, D, Sandercock, P, et al., the CRASH trial collaborators. Effect of intravenous corticosteroids on death within 14 days in 10 008 adults with clinically significant head injury (MRC CRASH trial): randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 364 (2004), 1321–1328.
CRASH-2 trial collaborators. Effects of tranexamic acid on death, vascular occlusive events, and blood transfusion in trauma patients with significant haemorrhage (CRASH-2): a randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 376 (2010), 23–32.
Ramsay, S, No closure in sight for the 10/90 health-research gap. Lancet, 358, 2001, 1348.
Mohan, D, Tiwari, G, Bhalla, K, Road safety in India: status report. http://tripp.iitd.ernet.in/assets/publication/road_safety_in_India_StatusReport1.pdf, 2015 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Government of India. Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. Opening of trauma centres on the highways. http://www.pib.nic.in/newsite/mbErel.aspx?relid=124772, 2015 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Government of India. Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. Capacity building for developing trauma care facilities on national highways. Operational guidelines. http://dghs.gov.in/WriteReadData/userfiles/file/Operational_Guidelines_Trauma.pdf, 2015 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Mooney, JS, Yates, A, Sellar, L, et al. Emergency head injury imaging: implementing NICE 2007 in a tertiary neurosciences centre and a busy district general hospital. Emerg Med J 28 (2011), 778–782.
Fuller, G, Bouamra, O, Woodford, M, et al. Temporal trends in head injury outcomes from 2003 to 2009 in England and Wales. Br J Neurosurg 25 (2011), 414–421.
Carney, N, Totten, AM, O'Reilly, C, et al. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury, fourth edn. Neurosurgery 80 (2017), 6–15.
Stocchetti, N, Maas, AI, Traumatic intracranial hypertension. N Engl J Med, 371, 2014, 972.
Cooper, DJ, Rosenfeld, JV, Murray, L, et al. for the DECRA Trial Investigators, the Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Society Clinical Trials Group. Decompressive craniectomy in diffuse traumatic brain injury. N Engl J Med 364 (2011), 1493–1502.
Andrews, PJ, Sinclair, HL, Rodriguez, A, et al., for the Eurotherm3235 Trial Collaborators. Hypothermia for intracranial hypertension after traumatic brain injury. N Engl J Med 373 (2015), 2403–2412.
O'Leary, R, Hutchinson, PJ, Menon, D, Hypothermia for intracranial hypertension after traumatic brain injury. N Engl J Med 374 (2016), 1383–1384.
Kramer, AH, Deis, N, Ruddell, S, et al. Decompressive craniectomy in patients with traumatic brain injury: are the usual indications congruent with those evaluated in clinical trials?. Neurocrit Care 25 (2016), 10–19.
Shen, L, Wang, Z, Su, Z, et al. Effects of intracranial pressure monitoring on mortality in patients with severe traumatic brain injury: a meta-analysis. PLoS One, 11, 2016, e0168901.
Yuan, Q, Wu, X, Sun, Y, et al. Impact of intracranial pressure monitoring on mortality in patients with traumatic brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Neurosurg 122 (2015), 574–587.
Su, S-H, Wang, F, Hai, J, et al. The effects of intracranial pressure monitoring in patients with traumatic brain injury. PLoS One, 9, 2014, e87432.
Chesnut, RM, Bleck, TP, Citerio, G, et al. A Consensus-based interpretation of the Benchmark Evidence from South American Trials: Treatment of Intracranial Pressure trial. J Neurotrauma 32 (2015), 1722–1724.
Güiza, F, Depreitere, B, Piper, I, et al. Visualizing the pressure and time burden of intracranial hypertension in adult and paediatric traumatic brain injury. Intensive Care Med 41 (2015), 1067–1076.
Picetti, E, Iaccarino, C, Servadei, F, Letter: Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury, fourth edn. Neurosurg, 81, 2017, E2.
Meyfroidt, G, Citerio, G, Letter: Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury, fourth edn. Neurosurg, 81, 2017, E1.
Sauvigny, T, Göttsche, J, Czorlich, P, Vettorazzi, E, Westphal, M, Regelsberger, J, Intracranial pressure in patients undergoing decompressive craniectomy: new perspective on thresholds. J Neurosurg, 2017 published online April 14. DOI:10.3171/2016.11.JNS162263.
Güiza, F, Meyfroidt, G, Piper, I, et al. Cerebral perfusion pressure insults and associations with outcome in adult traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 34 (2017), 2425–2431.
Bullock, M, Chesnut, R, Ghajar, J, Guidelines for the surgical management of traumatic brain injury. Neurosurgery 58 (2006), S2–vi.
Timofeev, I, Dahyot-Fizelier, C, Keong, N, et al. Ventriculostomy for control of raised ICP in acute traumatic brain injury. Acta Neurochir Suppl (Wien) 102 (2008), 99–104.
Liu, H, Wang, W, Cheng, F, et al. External ventricular drains versus intraparenchymal intracranial pressure monitors in traumatic brain injury: a prospective observational study. World Neurosurg 83 (2015), 794–800.
Van Essen, TA, de Ruiter, GC, Kho, KH, Peul, WC, Neurosurgical treatment variation of traumatic brain injury: evaluation of acute subdural hematoma management in Belgium and The Netherlands. J Neurotrauma 34 (2017), 881–889.
Compagnone, C, Murray, GD, Teasdale, GM, et al., the European Brain Injury Consortium. The management of patients with intradural post-traumatic mass lesions: a multicenter survey of current approaches to surgical management in 729 patients coordinated by the European Brain Injury Consortium. Neurosurgery 57 (2005), 1183–1192 discussion 1183–92.
Ghajar, J, Hariri, RJ, Narayan, RK, Iacono, LA, Firlik, K, Patterson, RH, Survey of critical care management of comatose, head-injured patients in the United States. Crit Care Med 23 (1995), 560–567.
Seelig, JM, Becker, DP, Miller, JD, Greenberg, RP, Ward, JD, Choi, SC, Traumatic acute subdural hematoma: major mortality reduction in comatose patients treated within four hours. N Engl J Med 304 (1981), 1511–1518.
Tallon, JM, Ackroyd-Stolarz, S, Karim, SA, Clarke, DB, The epidemiology of surgically treated acute subdural and epidural hematomas in patients with head injuries: a population-based study. Can J Surg 51 (2008), 339–345.
Li, LM, Kolias, AG, Guilfoyle, MR, et al. Outcome following evacuation of acute subdural haematomas: a comparison of craniotomy with decompressive craniectomy. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 154 (2012), 1555–1561.
Nijboer, JMM, van der Naalt, J, ten Duis, HJ, Patients beyond salvation? Various categories of trauma patients with a minimal Glasgow Coma Score. Injury 41 (2010), 52–57.
Mathew, P, Oluoch-Olunya, DL, Condon, BR, Bullock, R, Acute subdural haematoma in the conscious patient: outcome with initial non-operative management. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 121 (1993), 100–108.
Servadei, F, Nasi, MT, Cremonini, AM, Giuliani, G, Cenni, P, Nanni, A, Importance of a reliable admission Glasgow Coma Scale score for determining the need for evacuation of posttraumatic subdural hematomas: a prospective study of 65 patients. J Trauma 44 (1998), 868–873.
Wang, R, Li, M, Gao, WW, Guo, Y, Chen, J, Tian, HL, Outcomes of early decompressive craniectomy versus conventional medical management after severe traumatic brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore), 94, 2015, e1733.
Chang, EF, Meeker, M, Holland, MC, Acute traumatic intraparenchymal hemorrhage: risk factors for progression in the early post-injury period. Neurosurgery 58 (2006), 647–656 discussion 647–56.
Cai, X, Robinson, J, Muehlschlegel, S, et al. Patient preferences and surrogate decision making in neuroscience intensive care units. Neurocrit Care 23 (2015), 131–141.
Yang, XF, Wen, L, Shen, F, et al. Surgical complications secondary to decompressive craniectomy in patients with a head injury: a series of 108 consecutive cases. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 150 (2008), 1241–1247 discussion 1248.
Servadei, F, Compagnone, C, Sahuquillo, J, The role of surgery in traumatic brain injury. Curr Opin Crit Care 13 (2007), 163–168.
Honeybul, S, Janzen, C, Kruger, K, Ho, KM, Decompressive craniectomy for severe traumatic brain injury: is life worth living?. J Neurosurg 119 (2013), 1566–1575.
Hutchinson, PJ, Kolias, AG, Timofeev, IS, et al., for the RESCUEicp Trial Collaborators. Trial of decompressive craniectomy for traumatic intracranial hypertension. N Engl J Med 375 (2016), 1119–1130.
Van Essen, TA, Dijkman, MD, Cnossen, MC, et al. Comparative effectiveness of surgery for acute subdural hematoma. 12th Symposium of the International Neurotrauma Society; Cape Town, South Africa; Feb 1–4, 2016. J Neurotrauma, 33, 2016, A-20.
Gregson, BA, Rowan, EN, Francis, R, et al., for the STITCH(TRAUMA) Investigators. Surgical Trial In Traumatic intraCerebral Haemorrhage (STITCH): a randomised controlled trial of early surgery compared with initial conservative treatment. Health Technol Assess 19 (2015), 1–138.
van der Naalt, J, Timmerman, ME, de Koning, ME, et al. Early predictors of outcome after mild traumatic brain injury (UPFRONT): an observational cohort study. Lancet Neurol 16 (2017), 532–540.
Brasure, M, Lamberty, GJ, Sayer, NA, et al., for the Minnesota Evidence-based Practice Center. Multidisciplinary rehabilitation programs for moderate to severe traumatic brain injury in adults: future research needs. Future Research Needs Paper no 36. Report no 13–EHC047-EF. 2013, Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Rockville, MD https://www.effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/search-for-guides-reviews-and-reports/?pageaction=displayproduct&productid=1388 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Brasure, M, Lamberty, GJ, Sayer, NA, et al., for the Minnesota Evidence-based Practice Center. Multidisciplinary postacute rehabilitation for moderate to severe traumatic brain injury in adults. Comparative Effectiveness Reviews no 72. Report no 12–EHC101-EF. 2012, Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Rockville, MD https://www.effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/search-for-guides-reviews-and-reports/?pageaction=displayproduct&productid=1141 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Whyte, J, Nakase-Richardson, R, Disorders of consciousness: outcomes, comorbidities, and care needs. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 94 (2013), 1851–1854.
McQuistion, K, Zens, T, Jung, HS, et al. Insurance status and race affect treatment and outcome of traumatic brain injury. J Surg Res 205 (2016), 261–271.
Sohlberg, MM, Avery, J, Kennedy, M, et al. Practice guidelines for direct attention training. J Med Speech Lang Pathol 11 (2003), xix–xxxix.
Wilson, BA, Emslie, HC, Quirk, K, Evans, JJ, Reducing everyday memory and planning problems by means of a paging system. A randomised control crossover study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 70 (2001), 477–482.
Bourgeois, MS, Lenius, K, Turkstra, L, Camp, C, The effects of cognitive teletherapy on reported everyday memory behaviors of persons with chronic traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 21 (2007), 1245–1257.
Cicerone, K, Azulay, J, Perceived self-efficacy and life satisfaction after traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 22 (2007), 257–266.
Togher, L, Wiseman-Hakes, C, Douglas, J, et al., for the INCOG Expert Panel. INCOG recommendations for management of cognition following traumatic brain injury, part IV: cognitive communication. J Head Trauma Rehabil 29 (2014), 353–368.
Cicerone, KD, Mott, T, Azulay, J, et al. A randomized controlled trial of holistic neuropsychologic rehabilitation after traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 89 (2008), 2239–2249.
Vanderploeg, RD, Schwab, K, Walker, WC, et al. Rehabilitation of traumatic brain injury in active duty military personnel and veterans: Defense and Veterans Brain Injury Center randomized controlled trial of two rehabilitation approaches. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 89 (2008), 2227–2238.
WHO. The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF). http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/42407/7/9241545429_tha%2Beng.pdf, 2001 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Maas, AIR, Roozenbeek, B, Manley, GT, Clinical trials in traumatic brain injury: past experience and current developments. Neurotherapeutics 7 (2010), 115–126.
Maas, AIR, Menon, DK, Lingsma, HF, Pineda, JA, Sandel, ME, Manley, GT, Re-orientation of clinical research in traumatic brain injury: report of an international workshop on comparative effectiveness research. J Neurotrauma 29 (2012), 32–46.
National Research Council (US) Committee on A Framework for Developing a New Taxonomy of Disease. Toward precision medicine: building a knowledge network for biomedical research and a new taxonomy of disease. 2011, National Academies Press, Washington, DC.
Bragge, P, Synnot, A, Maas, AIR, et al. A state-of-the-science overview of randomized controlled trials evaluating acute management of moderate-to-severe traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 33 (2016), 1461–1478.
Graham, DI, Ford, I, Adams, JH, et al. Ischaemic brain damage is still common in fatal non-missile head injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 52 (1989), 346–350.
Johnson, VEV, Stewart, JEJ, Begbie, FDF, Trojanowski, JQ, Smith, DH, Stewart, W, Inflammation and white matter degeneration persist for years after a single traumatic brain injury. Brain 136 (2013), 28–42.
Adams, JH, Doyle, D, Ford, I, Gennarelli, TA, Graham, DI, McLellan, DR, Diffuse axonal injury in head injury: definition, diagnosis and grading. Histopathology 15 (1989), 49–59.
Johnson, VE, Stewart, W, Smith, DH, Axonal pathology in traumatic brain injury. Exp Neurol 246 (2013), 35–43.
Omalu, B, Bailes, J, Hamilton, RL, et al. Emerging histomorphologic phenotypes of chronic traumatic encephalopathy in American athletes. Neurosurgery 69 (2011), 173–183 discussion 183.
Collins, FS, Varmus, H, A new initiative on precision medicine. N Engl J Med 372 (2015), 793–795.
National Institutes of Health. Precision Medicine Initiative Cohort Program—Building a research foundation for 21st century medicine. https://www.nih.gov/sites/default/files/research-training/initiatives/pmi/pmi-working-group-report-20150917-2.pdf, 2015 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Undén, L, Calcagnile, O, Undén, J, Reinstrup, P, Bazarian, J, Validation of the Scandinavian guidelines for initial management of minimal, mild and moderate traumatic brain injury in adults. BMC Med, 13, 2015, 292.
Teasdale, G, Maas, A, Lecky, F, Manley, G, Stocchetti, N, Murray, G, The Glasgow Coma Scale at 40 years: standing the test of time. Lancet Neurol 13 (2014), 844–854.
Balestreri, M, Czosnyka, M, Chatfield, DA, et al. Predictive value of Glasgow Coma Scale after brain trauma: change in trend over the past ten years. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 75 (2004), 161–162.
WHO. International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems, 10th revision. 1992, World Health Organization, Geneva.
Gagné, M, Moore, L, Sirois, MJ, Simard, M, Beaudoin, C, Kuimi, BL, Performance of International Classification of Diseases-based injury severity measures used to predict in-hospital mortality and intensive care admission among traumatic brain-injured patients. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 82 (2017), 374–382.
Abbreviated Injury Scale 2005—Update 2008. 2008, Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine, Barrington, IL https://www.aaam.org/abbreviated-injury-scale-ais/ (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Marshall, LF, Marshall, SB, Klauber, MR, et al. A new classification of head injury based on computerized tomography. J Neurosurg 75 (1991), S14–S20.
Ringdal, KG, Coats, TJ, Lefering, R, et al., the Utstein TCD expert panel. The Utstein template for uniform reporting of data following major trauma: a joint revision by SCANTEM, TARN, DGU-TR and RITG. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med, 16, 2008, 7.
Roberts, GW, Gentleman, SMS, Lynch, A, Graham, DI, βA4 amyloid protein deposition in brain after head trauma. Lancet 338 (1991), 1422–1423.
University of Glasgow. The Glasgow Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) Archive. http://www.gla.ac.uk/schools/medicine/research/medicalgeneticsandpathology/tbiarchive/ (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
McKee, AC, Cantu, RC, Nowinski, CJ, et al. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy in athletes: progressive tauopathy after repetitive head injury. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 68 (2009), 709–735.
Bieniek, KF, Ross, OA, Cormier, KA, et al. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy pathology in a neurodegenerative disorders brain bank. Acta Neuropathol 130 (2015), 877–889.
McKee, AC, Stein, TD, Kiernan, PT, Alvarez, VE, The neuropathology of chronic traumatic encephalopathy. Brain Pathol 25 (2015), 350–364.
Edlow, BL, Haynes, RL, Takahashi, E, et al. Disconnection of the ascending arousal system in traumatic coma. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 72 (2013), 505–523.
Shatil, AS, Matsuda, KM, Figley, CR, A method for whole brain ex vivo magnetic resonance imaging with minimal susceptibility artifacts. Front Neurol, 7, 2016, 208.
Droby, A, Yuen, KS, Schänzer, A, et al. An improved anatomical MRI technique with suppression of fixative fluid artifacts for the investigation of human postmortem brain phantoms. Magn Reson Med 77 (2017), 1115–1123.
Lawrence, DW, Comper, P, Hutchison, MG, Sharma, B, The role of apolipoprotein E episilon (ε)-4 allele on outcome following traumatic brain injury: a systematic review. Brain Inj 29 (2015), 1018–1031.
Diamond, ML, Ritter, AC, Failla, MD, et al. IL-1β associations with posttraumatic epilepsy development: a genetics and biomarker cohort study. Epilepsia 55 (2014), 1109–1119.
Failla, MD, Conley, YP, Wagner, AK, Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in traumatic brain injury-related mortality: interrelationships between genetics and acute systemic and central nervous system BDNF profiles. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 30 (2016), 83–93.
Bulstrode, H, Nicoll, JA, Hudson, G, Chinnery, PF, Di Pietro, V, Belli, A, Mitochondrial DNA and traumatic brain injury. Ann Neurol 75 (2014), 186–195.
Mahley, RW, Central nervous system lipoproteins: ApoE and regulation of cholesterol metabolism. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 36 (2016), 1305–1315.
Mayeux, R, Ottman, R, Maestre, G, et al. Synergistic effects of traumatic head injury and apolipoprotein-epsilon 4 in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 45 (1995), 555–557.
Sundström, A, Nilsson, LG, Cruts, M, Adolfsson, R, Van Broeckhoven, C, Nyberg, L, Increased risk of dementia following mild head injury for carriers but not for non-carriers of the APOE epsilon4 allele. Int Psychogeriatr 19 (2007), 159–165.
Ponsford, J, McLaren, A, Schönberger, M, et al. The association between apolipoprotein E and traumatic brain injury severity and functional outcome in a rehabilitation sample. J Neurotrauma 28 (2011), 1683–1692.
Teasdale, GM, Nicoll, JA, Murray, G, Fiddes, M, Association of apolipoprotein E polymorphism with outcome after head injury. Lancet 350 (1997), 1069–1071.
Teasdale, GM, Murray, GD, Nicoll, JA, The association between APOE epsilon4, age and outcome after head injury: a prospective cohort study. Brain 128 (2005), 2556–2561.
Wang, KKW, Moghieb, A, Yang, Z, Zhang, Z, Systems biomarkers as acute diagnostics and chronic monitoring tools for traumatic brain injury. Proc SPIE 8723, Sensing Technologies for Global Health, Military Medicine, and Environmental Monitoring III, 87230O. published online May 29 DOI:10.1117/12.2020030, 2013.
Zhang, Z, Mondello, S, Kobeissy, FH, et al. Protein biomarkers for traumatic and ischemic brain injury: from bench to bedside. Transl Stroke Res 2 (2011), 455–462.
Dash, PK, Zhao, J, Hergenroeder, G, Moore, AN, Biomarkers for the diagnosis, prognosis, and evaluation of treatment efficacy for traumatic brain injury. Neurotherapeutics 7 (2010), 100–114.
Kulbe, JR, Geddes, JW, Current status of fluid biomarkers in mild traumatic brain injury. Exp Neurol 275 (2016), 334–352.
Carpenter, KL, Czosnyka, M, Jalloh, I, et al. Systemic, local, and imaging biomarkers of brain injury: more needed, and better use of those already established?. Front Neurol, 6, 2015, 26.
Rubenstein, R, Chang, B, Yue, JK, et al., the TRACK-TBI Investigators. Comparing plasma phospho tau, total tau, and phospho tau–total tau ratio as acute and chronic traumatic brain injury biomarkers. JAMA Neurol 74 (2017), 1063–1072.
Bhalala, OG, The emerging impact of microRNAs in neurotrauma pathophysiology and therapy. Kobeissy, FH, (eds.) Brain neurotrauma: Molecular, neuropsychological, and rehabilitation aspects, 2015, CRC Press/Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, FL ch 26.
Wolahan, SM, Hirt, D, Glenn, TC, Translational metabolomics of head injury: exploring dysfunctional cerebral metabolism with ex vivo NMR spectroscopy-based metabolite quantification. Kobeissy, FH, (eds.) Brain neurotrauma: Molecular, neuropsychological, and rehabilitation aspects, 2015, CRC Press/Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, FL ch 25.
Yu, C, Kobeissy, F, Systems biology applications to decipher mechanisms and novel biomarkers in CNS trauma. Kobeissy, FH, (eds.) Brain neurotrauma: Molecular, neuropsychological, and rehabilitation aspects, 2015, CRC Press/Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, FL ch 30.
Mitra, B, Rau, TF, Surendran, N, et al. Plasma micro-RNA biomarkers for diagnosis and prognosis after traumatic brain injury: a pilot study. J Clin Neurosci 38 (2017), 37–42.
Di Pietro, V, Ragusa, M, Davies, D, et al. MicroRNAs as novel biomarkers for the diagnosis and prognosis of mild and severe traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 34 (2017), 1948–1956.
Posti, JP, Dickens, AM, Orešič, M, Hyötyläinen, T, Tenovuo, O, Metabolomics profiling as a diagnostic tool in severe traumatic brain injury. Front Neurol, 8, 2017, 398.
Hodgkinson, S, Pollit, V, Sharpin, C, Lecky, F, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) Guideline Development Group. Early management of head injury: summary of updated NICE guidance. BMJ, 348, 2014, g104.
Fuller, G, McClelland, G, Lawrence, T, Russell, W, Lecky, F, The diagnostic accuracy of the HITSNS prehospital triage rule for identifying patients with significant traumatic brain injury: a cohort study. Eur J Emerg Med 23 (2016), 61–64.
Martínez-Morillo, E, Childs, C, García, BP, et al. Neurofilament medium polypeptide (NFM) protein concentration is increased in CSF and serum samples from patients with brain injury. Clin Chem Lab Med 53 (2015), 1575–1584.
Zhang, Z, Zoltewicz, JS, Mondello, S, et al. Human traumatic brain injury induces autoantibody response against glial fibrillary acidic protein and its breakdown products. PLoS One, 9, 2014, e92698.
Rubenstein, R, Chang, B, Davies, P, Wagner, AKA, Robertson, CS, Wang, KKW, A novel, ultrasensitive assay for tau: potential for assessing traumatic brain injury in tissues and biofluids. J Neurotrauma 32 (2015), 342–352.
Shahim, P, Tegner, Y, Wilson, DHD, et al. Blood biomarkers for brain injury in concussed professional ice hockey players. JAMA Neurol 71 (2014), 684–692.
Olivera, A, Lejbman, N, Jeromin, A, et al. Peripheral total tau in military personnel who sustain traumatic brain injuries during deployment. JAMA Neurol 72 (2015), 1109–1116.
Daubert, MA, Jeremias, A, The utility of troponin measurement to detect myocardial infarction: review of the current findings. Vasc Health Risk Manag 6 (2010), 691–699.
Apple, FS, Sandoval, Y, Jaffe, AS, Ordonez-Llanos, J, the IFCC Task Force on Clinical Applications of Cardiac Bio-Markers. Cardiac troponin assays: guide to understanding analytical characteristics and their impact on clinical care. Clin Chem 63 (2017), 73–81.
Brazis, PW, Masdeu, JC, Biller, J, The localization of lesions affecting the cerebral hemispheres. Localization in clinical neurology, 7th edn., 2016, Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA, 543–610.
Thelin, P, Zeiler, FA, Ercole, A, et al. Serial sampling of serum protein biomarkers for monitoring human traumatic brain injury dynamics: a systematic review. Front Neurol, 2017 published online July 3. DOI:10.3389/fneur.2017.00300.
Welch, RD, Ellis, M, Lewis, LM, et al. Modeling the kinetics of serum glial fibrillary acidic protein, ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal hydrolase-L1, and S100B concentrations in patients with traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 34 (2017), 1957–1971.
Di Battista, AP, Buonora, JE, Rhind, SG, et al. Blood biomarkers in moderate-to-severe traumatic brain injury: potential utility of a multi-marker approach in characterizing outcome. Front Neurol, 6, 2015, 110.
Mondello, S, Schmid, K, Berger, RP, et al. The challenge of mild traumatic brain injury: role of biochemical markers in diagnosis of brain damage. Med Res Rev 34 (2014), 503–531.
Pearl Pathways. Types of in vitro diagnostics: clearing up the confusion. http://www.pearlirb.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Whitepaper_IVDs_Oct2014_Final.pdf, 2014 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Papa, L, Wang, KKW, Raising the bar for traumatic brain injury biomarker research: methods make a difference. J Neurotrauma 34 (2017), 2187–2189.
Amyot, F, Arciniegas, DB, Brazaitis, MP, et al. A review of the effectiveness of neuroimaging modalities for the detection of traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 32 (2015), 1693–1721.
Galanaud, D, Perlbarg, V, Gupta, R, et al., the Neuro Imaging for Coma Emergence and Recovery Consortium. Assessment of white matter injury and outcome in severe brain trauma: a prospective multicenter cohort. Anesthesiology 117 (2012), 1300–1310.
Prakkamakul, S, Witzel, T, Huang, S, et al. Ultrafast brain MRI: clinical deployment and comparison to conventional brain MRI at 3T. J Neuroimaging 26 (2016), 503–510.
Pullens P, Verheyden J, Van Hecke W, Maas A, Parizel P. Development of a common MRI protocol for the Collaborative European Neuro Trauma Effectiveness Research in TBI study. European Congress of Radiology; Vienna, Austria; March 4–8, 2015. B-0294.
Palacios, EM, Martin, AJ, Boss, MA, et al., the TRACK-TBI Investigators. Towards precision and reproducibility of diffusion tensor imaging: a multicenter diffusion phantom and traveling volunteer study. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 38 (2017), 537–545.
Oddo, M, Bösel, J, the Participants in the International Multidisciplinary Consensus Conference on Multimodality Monitoring. Monitoring of brain and systemic oxygenation in neurocritical care patients. Neurocrit Care 21:suppl 2 (2014), S103–S120.
Needham, E, McFadyen, C, Newcombe, V, Synnot, AJ, Czosnyka, M, Menon, D, Cerebral perfusion pressure targets individualized to pressure-reactivity index in moderate to severe traumatic brain injury: a systematic review. J Neurotrauma 34 (2017), 963–970.
Hutchinson, PJ, Jalloh, I, Helmy, A, et al. Consensus statement from the 2014 International Microdialysis Forum. Intensive Care Med 41 (2015), 1517–1528.
Czosnyka, M, Miller, C, the Participants in the International Multidisciplinary Consensus Conference on Multimodality Monitoring. Monitoring of cerebral autoregulation. Neurocrit Care 21:suppl 2 (2014), S95–S102.
Dreier, JP, Fabricius, M, Ayata, C, et al. Recording, analysis, and interpretation of spreading depolarizations in neurointensive care: review and recommendations of the COSBID research group. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 37 (2016), 1595–1625.
Lubillo, ST, Parrilla, DM, Blanco, J, et al. Prognostic value of changes in brain tissue oxygen pressure before and after decompressive craniectomy following severe traumatic brain injury. J Neurosurg, 2017 published online June 30. DOI:10.3171/2017.1.JNS161840.
Thelin, EP, Tajsic, T, Zeiler, FA, et al. Monitoring the neuroinflammatory response following acute brain injury. Front Neurol, 8, 2017, 351.
Okonkwo D, Shutter LA, Moore C, et al. Brain tissue oxygen monitoring and management in severe traumatic brain injury (BOOST-II): a phase II randomized trial. Crit Care Med (in press).
Vespa, P, Menon, D, Le Roux, P, the Participants in the International Multi-disciplinary Consensus Conference on Multimodality Monitoring. The International Multi-disciplinary Consensus Conference on Multimodality Monitoring: future directions and emerging technologies. Neurocrit Care 21:suppl 2 (2014), S270–S281.
Schmidt, JM, De Georgia, M, the Participants in the International Multidisciplinary Consensus Conference on Multimodality Monitoring. Multimodality monitoring: informatics, integration data display and analysis. Neurocrit Care 21:suppl 2 (2014), S229–S238.
Nielson, JL, Cooper, SR, Yue, JK, et al., the TRACK-TBI Investigators. Uncovering precision phenotype-biomarker associations in traumatic brain injury using topological data analysis. PLoS One, 12, 2017, e0169490.
Jennett, B, Bond, M, Assessment of outcome after severe brain damage. Lancet 1 (1975), 480–484.
Wilson, JT, Pettigrew, LE, Teasdale, GM, Structured interviews for the Glasgow Outcome Scale and the extended Glasgow Outcome Scale: guidelines for their use. J Neurotrauma 15 (1998), 573–585.
McMillan, T, Wilson, L, Ponsford, J, Levin, H, Teasdale, G, Bond, M, The Glasgow Outcome Scale — 40 years of application and refinement. Nat Rev Neurol 12 (2016), 477–485.
Stein, MB, Kessler, RC, Heeringa, SG, et al., the Army STARRS collaborators. Prospective longitudinal evaluation of the effect of deployment-acquired traumatic brain injury on posttraumatic stress and related disorders: results from the Army Study to Assess Risk and Resilience in Servicemembers (Army STARRS). Am J Psychiatry 172 (2015), 1101–1111.
Haarbauer-Krupa, J, Taylor, CA, Yue, JK, et al. Screening for post-traumatic stress disorder in a civilian emergency department population with traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 34 (2017), 50–58.
Scheenen, ME, Spikman, JM, de Koning, ME, et al. Patients “at risk” of suffering from persistent complaints after mild traumatic brain injury: the role of coping, mood disorders, and post-traumatic stress. J Neurotrauma 34 (2017), 31–37.
de Koning, ME, Scheenen, ME, van der Horn, HJ, et al. Non-hospitalized patients with mild traumatic brain injury: the forgotten minority. J Neurotrauma 34 (2017), 257–261.
Ettenhofer, M, Barry, D, A Comparison of long-term postconcussive symptoms between university students with and without a history of mild traumatic brain injury or orthopedic injury. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 18 (2012), 451–460.
Wang, Y, Chan, RCK, Deng, Y, Examination of postconcussion-like symptoms in healthy university students: relationships to subjective and objective neuropsychological function performance. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 21 (2006), 339–347.
Pretz, CR, Dams-O'Connor, K, Longitudinal description of the Glasgow Outcome Scale-Extended for individuals in the Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems National Database: a National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 94 (2013), 2486–2493.
Ouellet, MC, Beaulieu-Bonneau, S, Morin, CM, Sleep-wake disturbances after traumatic brain injury. Lancet Neurol 14 (2015), 746–757.
Lavigne, G, Khoury, S, Chauny, JM, Desautels, A, Pain and sleep in post-concussion/mild traumatic brain injury. Pain 156:suppl 1 (2015), S75–S85.
Bosco, MA, Murphy, JL, Clark, ME, Chronic pain and traumatic brain injury in OEF/OIF service members and veterans. Headache 53 (2013), 1518–1522.
Nelson, LD, Ranson, J, Ferguson, AR, et al. Validating multidimensional outcome assessment using the TBI Common Data Elements: an analysis of the TRACK-TBI pilot sample. J Neurotrauma, 2017 published online June 8. DOI:10.1089/neu.2017.5139.
Roozenbeek, B, Lingsma, HF, Perel, P, et al. for the IMPACT (International Mission on Prognosis and Clinical Trial Design in Traumatic Brain Injury) Study Group, the CRASH (Corticosteroid Randomisation After Significant Head Injury) Trial Collaborators. The added value of ordinal analysis in clinical trials: an example in traumatic brain injury. Crit Care, 15, 2011, R127.
Maas, AIR, Murray, GD, Roozenbeek, B, et al., for the International Mission on Prognosis Analysis of Clinical Trials in Traumatic Brain Injury (IMPACT) Study Group. Advancing care for traumatic brain injury: findings from the IMPACT studies and perspectives on future research. Lancet Neurol 12 (2013), 1200–1210.
Murray, GD, Barer, D, Choi, S, et al. Design and analysis of phase III trials with ordered outcome scales: the concept of the sliding dichotomy. J Neurotrauma 22 (2005), 511–517.
Moving Ahead Centre of Research Excellence (CRE) in Brain Recovery. Measuring outcomes from TBI. http://movingahead.psy.unsw.edu.au/adult_outcome_measures_from_tbi.html, 2014.
Laxe, S, Zasler, N, Selb, M, Tate, R, Tormos, JM, Bernabeu, M, Development of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health core sets for traumatic brain injury: an international consensus process. Brain Inj 27 (2013), 379–387.
Tate, RL, Godbee, K, Sigmundsdottir, L, A systematic review of assessment tools for adults used in traumatic brain injury research and their relationship to the ICF. NeuroRehabilitation 32 (2013), 729–750.
National Institutes of Health. NINDS Common Data Elements. Traumatic brain injury: data standards. https://www.commondataelements.ninds.nih.gov/tbi.aspx#tab=Data_Standards (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Kean, J, Malec, JF, Towards a better measure of brain injury outcome: new measures or a new metric?. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 95 (2014), 1225–1228.
Bagiella, E, Novack, TA, Ansel, B, et al. Measuring outcome in traumatic brain injury treatment trials: recommendations from the traumatic brain injury clinical trials network. J Head Trauma Rehabil 25 (2010), 375–382.
Patrick, DL, Burke, LB, Powers, JH, et al. Patient-reported outcomes to support medical product labeling claims: FDA perspective. Value Health 10:suppl 2 (2007), S125–S137.
Prigatano, GP, Disturbances of self-awareness and rehabilitation of patients with traumatic brain injury: a 20-year perspective. J Head Trauma Rehabil 20 (2005), 19–29.
Scheibel, RS, Levin, HS, Clifton, GL, Completion rates and feasibility of outcome measures: experience in a multicenter clinical trial of systemic hypothermia for severe head injury. J Neurotrauma 15 (1998), 685–692.
Merz, ZC, Roskos, PT, Gfeller, JD, Bucholz, RD, Impact of psychiatric symptomatology on neuropsychological assessment performance in persons with TBI: a comparison of OEF/OIF veteran and civilian samples. Brain Inj, 2017 published online July 14. DOI:10.1080/02699052.2017.1339124.
Temkin, NR, Anderson, GD, Winn, HR, et al. Magnesium sulfate for neuroprotection after traumatic brain injury: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Neurol 6 (2007), 29–38.
Zafonte, RD, Bagiella, E, Ansel, BM, et al. Effect of citicoline on functional and cognitive status among patients with traumatic brain injury: Citicoline Brain Injury Treatment Trial (COBRIT). JAMA 308 (2012), 1993–2000.
Baumhauer, JF, Patient-reported outcomes—are they living up to their potential?. N Engl J Med 377 (2017), 6–9.
Yue, JK, Vassar, MJ, Lingsma, HF, et al., for the TRACK-TBI Investigators. Transforming research and clinical knowledge in traumatic brain injury pilot: multicenter implementation of the common data elements for traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 30 (2013), 1831–1844.
Lingsma, HF, Roozenbeek, B, Steyerberg, EW, Murray, GD, Maas, AI, Early prognosis in traumatic brain injury: from prophecies to predictions. Lancet Neurol 9 (2010), 543–554.
Mushkudiani, NA, Hukkelhoven, CW, Hernández, AV, et al. A systematic review finds methodological improvements necessary for prognostic models in determining traumatic brain injury outcomes. J Clin Epidemiol 61 (2008), 331–343.
Perel, P, Edwards, P, Wentz, R, Roberts, I, Systematic review of prognostic models in traumatic brain injury. BMC Med Inform Decis Mak, 6, 2006, 38.
Steyerberg, EW, Mushkudiani, N, Perel, P, et al. Predicting outcome after traumatic brain injury: development and international validation of prognostic scores based on admission characteristics. PLoS Med, 5, 2008, e165.
Perel, P, Arango, M, Clayton, T, et al., for the MRC CRASH Trial Collaborators. Predicting outcome after traumatic brain injury: practical prognostic models based on large cohort of international patients. BMJ 336 (2008), 425–429.
Lund, SB, Gjeilo, KH, Moen, KG, Schirmer-Mikalsen, K, Skandsen, T, Vik, A, Moderate traumatic brain injury, acute phase course and deviations in physiological variables: an observational study. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med, 24, 2016, 77.
Roozenbeek, B, Lingsma, HF, Lecky, FE, et al. for the International Mission on Prognosis Analysis of Clinical Trials in Traumatic Brain Injury (IMPACT) Study Group the Corticosteroid Randomisation After Significant Head Injury (CRASH) Trial Collaborators, the Trauma Audit and Research Network (TARN). Prediction of outcome after moderate and severe traumatic brain injury: external validation of the International Mission on Prognosis and Analysis of Clinical Trials (IMPACT) and Corticoid Randomisation After Significant Head injury (CRASH) prognostic models. Crit Care Med 40 (2012), 1609–1617.
Dikmen, S, Machamer, J, Temkin, N, Mild traumatic brain injury: Longitudinal study of cognition, functional status, and post-traumatic symptoms. J Neurotrauma 34 (2017), 1524–1530.
Zemek, R, Barrowman, N, Freedman, SB, et al., the Pediatric Emergency Research Canada (PERC) Concussion Team. Clinical risk score for persistent postconcussion symptoms among children with acute concussion in the ED. JAMA 315 (2016), 1014–1025.
Kristman, VL, Borg, J, Godbolt, AK, et al. Methodological issues and research recommendations for prognosis after mild traumatic brain injury: results of the International Collaboration on Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Prognosis. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 95:suppl (2014), S265–S277.
Cassidy, JD, Cancelliere, C, Carroll, LJ, et al. Systematic review of self-reported prognosis in adults after mild traumatic brain injury: results of the International Collaboration on Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Prognosis. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 95:suppl (2014), S132–S151.
Lingsma, HF, Yue, JK, Maas, AI, Steyerberg, EW, Manley, GT, the TRACK-TBI Investigators. Outcome prediction after mild and complicated mild traumatic brain injury: external validation of existing models and identification of new predictors using the TRACK-TBI pilot study. J Neurotrauma 32 (2015), 83–94.
van Leeuwen, N, Lingsma, HF, Perel, P, et al. for the International Mission on Prognosis and Clinical Trial Design in TBI Study Group the Corticosteroid Randomization After Significant Head Injury Trial Collaborators, the Trauma Audit and Research Network. Prognostic value of major extracranial injury in traumatic brain injury: an individual patient data meta-analysis in 39,274 patients. Neurosurgery 70 (2012), 811–818 discussion 818.
Moen, KG, Brezova, V, Skandsen, T, Håberg, AK, Folvik, M, Vik, A, Traumatic axonal injury: the prognostic value of lesion load in corpus callosum, brain stem, and thalamus in different magnetic resonance imaging sequences. J Neurotrauma 31 (2014), 1486–1496.
Yuh, EL, Mukherjee, P, Lingsma, HFH, et al., the TRACK-TBI Investigators. Magnetic resonance imaging improves 3-month outcome prediction in mild traumatic brain injury. Ann Neurol 73 (2013), 224–235.
Cabella, B, Donnelly, J, Cardim, D, et al. An association between ICP-derived data and outcome in TBI patients: The role of sample size. Neurocrit Care 27 (2017), 103–107.
Adams, H, Donnelly, J, Czosnyka, M, et al. Temporal profile of intracranial pressure and cerebrovascular reactivity in severe traumatic brain injury and association with fatal outcome: An observational study. PLoS Med, 14, 2017, e1002353.
van Houwelingen, H, Putter, H, Dynamic prediction in clinical survival analysis. 2011, CRC Press/Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, FL.
van der Ploeg, T, Nieboer, D, Steyerberg, EW, Modern modeling techniques had limited external validity in predicting mortality from traumatic brain injury. J Clin Epidemiol 78 (2016), 83–89.
Pirracchio, R, Yue, JK, Manley, GT, et al. Collaborative targeted maximum likelihood estimation for variable importance measure: Illustration for functional outcome prediction in mild traumatic brain injuries. Stat Methods Med Res, 2016 0962280215627335.
Leening, MJG, Vedder, MM, Witteman, JCM, Pencina, MJ, Steyerberg, EW, Net reclassification improvement: computation, interpretation, and controversies: a literature review and clinician's guide. Ann Intern Med 160 (2014), 122–131.
Steyerberg, EW, Vickers, AJ, Cook, NR, et al. Assessing the performance of prediction models: a framework for traditional and novel measures. Epidemiology 21 (2010), 128–138.
Hlatky, MA, Greenland, P, Arnett, DK, et al., the American Heart Association Expert Panel on Subclinical Atherosclerotic Diseases and Emerging Risk Factors and the Stroke Council. Criteria for evaluation of novel markers of cardiovascular risk: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 119 (2009), 2408–2416.
Steyerberg, EW, Borsboom, GJJM, van Houwelingen, HC, Eijkemans, MJC, Habbema, JDF, Validation and updating of predictive logistic regression models: a study on sample size and shrinkage. Stat Med 23 (2004), 2567–2586.
Frieden, TR, Evidence for health decision making—beyond randomized, controlled trials. N Engl J Med 377 (2017), 465–475.
Institute of Medicine. Initial national priorities for comparative effectiveness research. 2009, National Academies Press, Washington, DC.
Chalkidou, K, Tunis, S, Whicher, D, Fowler, R, Zwarenstein, M, The role for pragmatic randomized controlled trials (pRCTs) in comparative effectiveness research. Clin Trials 9 (2012), 436–446.
Lingsma, HF, Roozenbeek, B, Li, B, et al. Large between-center differences in outcome after moderate and severe traumatic brain injury in the international mission on prognosis and clinical trial design in traumatic brain injury (IMPACT) study. Neurosurgery 68 (2011), 6010–6018.
Lingsma, HF, Roozenbeek, B, Perel, P, Roberts, I, Maas, AIR, Steyerberg, EW, Between-centre differences and treatment effects in randomized controlled trials: a case study in traumatic brain injury. Trials, 12, 2011, 201.
Marshall, LF, Becker, DP, Bowers, SA, et al. The National Traumatic Coma Data Bank. Part 1: Design, purpose, goals, and results. J Neurosurg 59 (1983), 276–284.
Teasdale, GM, Braakman, R, Cohadon, F, et al. The European Brain Injury Consortium. Nemo solus satis sapit: nobody knows enough alone. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 139 (1997), 797–803.
Nichol, A, French, C, Little, L, et al., the EPO-TBI Investigators and the ANZICS Clinical Trials Group. Erythropoietin in traumatic brain injury (EPO-TBI): a double-blind randomised controlled trial. Lancet 386 (2015), 2499–2506.
Myburgh, J, Cooper, DJ, Finfer, S, et al. the SAFE Study Investigators the Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Society Clinical Trials Group the Australian Red Cross Blood Service, the George Institute for International Health. Saline or albumin for fluid resuscitation in patients with traumatic brain injury. N Engl J Med 357 (2007), 874–884.
Tosetti, P, Hicks, RR, Theriault, E, Phillips, A, Koroshetz, W, Draghia-Akli, R, the Workshop Participants. Toward an international initiative for traumatic brain injury research. J Neurotrauma 30 (2013), 1211–1222.
Maas, AIR, Menon, DK, Steyerberg, EW, et al., the CENTER-TBI Participants and Investigators. Collaborative European NeuroTrauma Effectiveness Research in Traumatic Brain Injury (CENTER-TBI): a prospective longitudinal observational study. Neurosurgery 76 (2015), 67–80.
Zemek, R, Osmond, MH, Barrowman, N, et al. Predicting and Preventing Postconcussive Problems in Paediatrics (5P) study. BMJ Open 3 (2013), 1–10.
Barlow, KM, Brooks, BL, MacMaster, FP, et al. A double-blind, placebo-controlled intervention trial of 3 and 10 mg sublingual melatonin for post-concussion syndrome in youths (PLAYGAME): study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials, 15, 2014, 271.
National Institutes of Health. International Alzheimer's disease research portfolio. https://iadrp.nia.nih.gov/ (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Carrillo, MC, Alzheimer's Association: global funder of research. https://www.alz.co.uk/sites/default/files/conf2016/pl13-maria-carrillo-alzheimers-association-global-funder.pdf, 2016 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Walentas, CD, Shineman, DW, Horton, AR, Boeve, BF, Fillit, HM, An analysis of global research funding for the frontotemporal dementias: 1998–2008. Alzheimers Dement 7 (2011), 142–150.
Onyike, CU, Diehl-Schmid, J, The epidemiology of frontotemporal dementia. Int Rev Psychiatry 25 (2013), 130–137.
Richardson, RM, Global brain initiatives. Neurosurgery 80 (2017), N21–N22.
National Institutes of Health. NIH data sharing policy. https://grants.nih.gov/grants/policy/data_sharing/, 2007 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Medical Research Council. MRC policy and guidance on sharing of research data from population and patient studies. http://www.mrc.ac.uk/publications/browse/mrc-policy-and-guidance-on-sharing-of-research-data-from-population-and-patient-studies/, 2011 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Wellcome Trust. Policy on data management and sharing. https://wellcome.ac.uk/funding/managing-grant/policy-data-management-and-sharing (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
European Medicines Agency. European Medicines Agency policy on publication of clinical data for medicinal products for human use. http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Other/2014/10/WC500174796.pdf, 2014 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Hudson, KL, Collins, FS, Sharing and reporting the results of clinical trials. JAMA 313 (2015), 355–356.
Institute of Medicine. Discussion framework for clinical trial data sharing: guiding principles, elements and activities. 2014, National Academies Press, Washington, DC.
Institute of Medicine. Sharing clinical research data: workshop summary. 2013, National Academies Press, Washington, DC.
Vickers, AJ, Sharing raw data from clinical trials: what progress since we first asked “Whose data set is it anyway?”. Trials, 17, 2016, 227.
Taichman, DB, Sahni, P, Pinborg, A, et al. Data sharing statements for clinical trials. BMJ, 357, 2017, j2372.
Varnai, P, Rentel, M, Simmonds, P, Sharp, T-A, Mostert, B, de Jongh, T, Assessing the research potential of access to clinical trial data. Final report to the Wellcome Trust. https://wellcome.ac.uk/sites/default/files/assessing-research-potential-of-access-to-clinical-trials-data-wellcome-mar15.pdf, 2015 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Office for Civil Rights, US Department for Health and Human Services. HIPAA Privacy Rule: Research. https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/for-professionals/special-topics/research/index.html, 2003 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Official Journal of the European Union. Directive (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32016R0679, 2016 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Bierer, BE, Crosas, M, Pierce, HH, Data authorship as an incentive to data sharing. N Engl J Med 376 (2017), 1684–1687.
Tudur Smith, C, Nevitt, S, Appelbe, D, et al. Resource implications of preparing individual participant data from a clinical trial to share with external researchers. Trials, 18, 2017, 319.
Wilhelm, EE, Oster, E, Shoulson, I, Approaches and costs for sharing clinical research data. JAMA 311 (2014), 1201–1202.
GNU Operating System. GNU manifesto. http://www.gnu.org/gnu/manifesto.html, 2015 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
CENTER-TBI. Data sharing policy. https://www.center-tbi.eu/publications/datasharing, 2017 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
The end of privacy. Science 347 (2015), 453–580.
Dwork, C, Pottenger, R, Toward practicing privacy. J Am Med Inform Assoc 20 (2013), 102–108.
Dwork, C, Roth, A, The algorithmic foundations of differential privacy. Found Trends Theor Comput Sci 9 (2014), 211–407.
Sorani, MD, Yue, JK, Sharma, S, Manley, GT, Ferguson, AR, the TRACK TBI Investigators. Genetic data sharing and privacy. Neuroinformatics 13 (2015), 1–6.
Erlich, Y, Williams, JB, Glazer, D, et al. Redefining genomic privacy: trust and empowerment. PLoS Biol, 12, 2014, e1001983.
Hudson, KL, Collins, FS, The 21st Century Cures Act — A view from the NIH. N Engl J Med 376 (2017), 111–113.
Chassang, G, The impact of the EU general data protection regulation on scientific research. Ecancermedicalscience, 11, 2017, 709.
Grimshaw, JM, Eccles, MP, Lavis, JN, Hill, SJ, Squires, JE, Knowledge translation of research findings. Implement Sci, 7, 2012, 50.
Bragge, P, Clavisi, O, Turner, T, Tavender, E, Collie, A, Gruen, RL, The Global Evidence Mapping Initiative: scoping research in broad topic areas. BMC Med Res Methodol, 11, 2011, 92.
Elliott, JH, Turner, T, Clavisi, O, et al. Living systematic reviews: an emerging opportunity to narrow the evidence–practice gap. PLoS Med, 11, 2014, e1001603.
Shojania, KG, Sampson, M, Ansari, MT, Ji, J, Doucette, S, Moher, D, How quickly do systematic reviews go out of date? A survival analysis. Ann Intern Med 147 (2007), 224–233.
Synnot, A, Gruen, RL, Menon, D, et al. A new approach to evidence synthesis in traumatic brain injury: a living systematic review. J Neurotrauma, 2016 published online Aug 25. DOI:10.1089/neu.2015.4124.
Elliott, JH, Synnot, A, Turner, T, et al. Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how. J Clin Epidemiol, 2017 published online Sept 11. DOI:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010.
Wallace, BC, Kuiper, J, Sharma, A, Zhu, MB, Marshall, IJ, Extracting PICO sentences from clinical trial reports using supervised distant supervision. J Mach Learn Res, 17, 2016, 132.
Wallace, BC, Small, K, Brodley, CE, et al. Toward modernizing the systematic review pipeline in genetics: efficient updating via data mining. Genet Med 14 (2012), 663–669.
Wallace, BC, Trikalinos, TA, Lau, J, Brodley, C, Schmid, CH, Semi-automated screening of biomedical citations for systematic reviews. BMC Bioinformatics, 11, 2010, 55.
Créquit, P, Trinquart, L, Ravaud, P, Live cumulative network meta-analysis: protocol for second-line treatments in advanced non-small-cell lung cancer with wild-type or unknown status for epidermal growth factor receptor. BMJ Open, 6, 2016, e011841.
Charidimou, A, Soo, Y, Heo, JH, Srikanth, V, the META-MICROBLEEDS Consortium. A call for researchers to join the META-MICROBLEEDS Consortium. Lancet Neurol, 15, 2016, 900.
Akla, EA, Meerpohl, JJ, Elliott, J, et al. Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations. J Clin Epidemiol, 2017 published online Sept 11. DOI:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009.
American College of Surgeons. ACS TQIP best practice guidelines. https://www.facs.org/quality-programs/trauma/tqip/best-practice, 2017 (accessed Sept 20, 2017).
Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group. Evidence-based medicine. A new approach to teaching the practice of medicine. JAMA 268 (1992), 2420–2425.
Sackett, DL, Rosenberg, WM, Gray, JA, Haynes, RB, Richardson, WS, Evidence based medicine: what it is and what it isn't. BMJ 312 (1996), 71–72.
Grol, R, Personal paper. Beliefs and evidence in changing clinical practice. BMJ 315 (1997), 418–421.
McGlynn, EA, Asch, SM, Adams, J, et al. The quality of health care delivered to adults in the United States. N Engl J Med 348 (2003), 2635–2645.
Schuster, MA, McGlynn, EA, Brook, RH, How good is the quality of health care in the United States?. Milbank Q 83 (2005), 843–895.
Grol, R, Grimshaw, J, From best evidence to best practice: effective implementation of change in patients' care. Lancet 362 (2003), 1225–1230.
Hesdorffer, DC, Ghajar, J, Iacono, L, Predictors of compliance with the evidence-based guidelines for traumatic brain injury care: a survey of United States trauma centers. J Trauma 52 (2002), 1202–1209.
Hesdorffer, DC, Ghajar, J, Marked improvement in adherence to traumatic brain injury guidelines in United States trauma centers. J Trauma 63 (2007), 841–847 discussion 847–48.
Härtl, R, Gerber, LM, Ni, Q, Ghajar, J, Effect of early nutrition on deaths due to severe traumatic brain injury. J Neurosurg 109 (2008), 50–56.
Vincent, C, Taylor-Adams, S, Stanhope, N, Framework for analysing risk and safety in clinical medicine. BMJ 316 (1998), 1154–1157.
Vincent, C, Understanding and responding to adverse events. N Engl J Med 348 (2003), 1051–1056.
Colquhoun, H, Leeman, J, Michie, S, et al. Towards a common terminology: a simplified framework of interventions to promote and integrate evidence into health practices, systems, and policies. Implement Sci, 9, 2014, 51.
Bragge, P, Grimshaw, JM, Lokker, C, Colquhoun, H, the AIMD working/writing group. AIMD—a validated, simplified framework of interventions to promote and integrate evidence into health practices, systems, and policies. BMC Med Res Methodol, 17, 2017, 38.
WHO. Bridging the ‘Know–Do’ Gap. Meeting on knowledge translation in global health. https://www.measureevaluation.org/resources/training/capacity-building-resources/high-impact-research-training-curricula/bridging-the-know-do-gap.pdf, 2006.
