[en] The freshwater crater lakes of western Uganda represent an important natural resource for the region’s rural
communities, but their capacity to provide drinking-quality water and other ecosystem services is being
threatened by rapidly intensifying human activity within their catchments. This study investigated the relationship
between the composition of pelagic phytoplankton communities in these lakes and their trophic
status, to assess how phytoplankton surveys with recognition of indicator species can assist in the assessment of
water-resource vulnerability to human impact. For this purpose we analyzed 70 phytoplankton samples with
linked environmental data from 26 crater lakes spanning the entire regional gradients of primary productivity
and land-use intensity, with each lake sampled two to four times and during both dry and rainy seasons. At this
equatorial location, nutrient concentrations and phytoplankton biomass (measured as the concentration of
chlorophyll-a) showed no consistent seasonal pattern. In total we recorded 118 phytoplankton taxa from 72
genera, and from 20 to 54 taxa per lake. The phytoplankton community of most lakes and in most seasons was
dominated by cyanobacteria (on average 78% of total cell counts) followed by green algae (17%) and diatoms
(4%); euglenophytes, dinoflagellates, chrysophytes and cryptophytes together contributed less than 1% on
average. Many species were found to have a wide distribution along the productivity gradient, which complicated
characterization of phytoplankton communities typical of different trophic states. Cluster analysis revealed
four groups of samples, of which two broadly represented the least and most highly productive lakes. The two
other groups comprised a mixture of lakes with intermediate productivity, suggesting that phytoplankton
composition in these lakes is structured by other factors in addition to nutrient availability. In total 25 taxa
displayed a significant association with one of these groups, but only 12 of them can be considered robust
indicators of a particular trophic level; among these, the cyanobacteria Planktolyngbya limnetica and Microcystis
aeruginosa qualify as strong indicator species for lakes with low and high productivity, respectively. Based on the
distributional turnover between indicator species, we propose that the fresh Ugandan crater lakes comprise four
trophic levels, of which the boundaries are situated higher up the chlorophyll-a gradient than those between the
four classic trophic levels defined for temperate-region lakes. For practical use, Ugandan crater lakes with a
chlorophyll-a concentration up to 6 μg/L can be defined as oligotrophic; similarly, we situate the mesotrophic/
eutrophic boundary at ca 20 μg/L, and the eutrophic/hypertrophic boundary at ca 60 μg/L.
Disciplines :
Aquatic sciences & oceanology
Author, co-author :
Nankabirwa, A.
De Crop, W.
Van der Meeren, T.
Cocquyt, C.
Plisnier, Pierre-Denis ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département d'astrophys., géophysique et océanographie (AGO) > Chemical Oceanography Unit (COU)
Balirwa, J.
Verschuren, D.
Language :
English
Title :
Phytoplankton communities in the crater lakes of western Uganda, and their indicator species in relation to lake trophic status.
Abell, J.M., Özkundakci, D., Hamilton, D.P., Jones, J.R., Latitudinal variation in nutrient stoichiometry and chlorophyll-nutrient relationships in lakes: a global study. Arch. Hydrobiol. 181 (2012), 1–14, 10.1127/1863-9135/2012/0272.
Anneville, O., Gammeter, S., Straile, D., Phosphorus decrease and climate variability: mediators of synchrony in phytoplankton changes among European peri-alpine lakes. Freshw. Biol. 50 (2005), 1731–1746, 10.1111/j.1365-2427.2005.01429.x.
Beaulieu, M., Pick, F., Gregory-Eaves, I., Nutrients and water temperature are significant predictors of cyanobacterial biomass in a 1147 lakes data set. Limnol. Oceanogr. 58 (2013), 1736–1746, 10.4319/lo.2013.58.5.1736.
Bessems, I., Verschuren, D., Russell, J.M., Hus, J., Mees, F., Cumming, B.F., Palaeolimnological evidence for widespread late-18th century drought across equatorial East Africa. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 259 (2008), 107–120, 10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.10.002.
Blenckner, T., Adrian, R., Livingstone, D.M., Jennings, E., Weyhenmeyer, G.A., George, D.G., Jankowski, T., Jarvinen, M., Aonghusa, C.N., Noges, T., Straile, D., Teubner, K., Large-scale climatic signatures in lakes across Europe: a meta-analysis. Glob. Change Biol. 13 (2007), 1314–1326, 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2007.01364.x.
Boven, A., Pasteels, P., Punzalan, L.E., Yamba, T.K., Musisi, J.H., Quaternary perpotassic magmatism in Uganda (Toro-Ankole volcanic province): age assessment and significance for magmatic evolution along the East African Rift’. J. Afr. Earth Sci. 26 (1998), 463–476, 10.1016/S0899-5362(98)00026-8.
Brock, T.D., Lower pH limit for the existence of blue-green algae: evolutionary and ecological implications. Science 179 (1973), 480–483.
Burgis, M.J., Darlington, J.P.E.C., Dunn, I.G., Ganf, G.G., Gwahaba, J.J., McGowan, L.M., The biomass and distribution of organisms in Lake George, Uganda. Proc. Roy. Soc. B: Biol. Sci. 184 (1973), 271–298.
Campbell, L., Hecky, R.E., Dixon, D.G., Chapman, L.J., Food web structure and mercury transfer in two contrasting Ugandan highland crater lakes (East Africa). Afr. J. Ecol. 44 (2006), 337–346, 10.1111/j.1365-2028.2006.00582.x.
Carey, C.C., Ibelings, B.W., Hoffmann, E.P., Hamilton, D.P., Brookes, J.D., Occurrence and toxicity of the cyanobacterium Gloeotrichia echinulata in low-nutrient lakes in the northeastern United States. Aquat. Ecol. 46 (2012), 395–409, 10.1007/s10452-012-9409-9.
Carlson, R.E., A trophic state index for lakes. Limnol. Oceanogr. 22 (1977), 361–369.
Carvalho, L., Solimini, A., Phillips, G., van den Berg, M., Pietiläinen, O.-P., Lyche-Solheim, A., Poikane, S., Mischke, U., Chlorophyll reference conditions for European lake types used for intercalibration of ecological status. Aquat. Ecol. 42 (2008), 203–211, 10.1007/s10452-008-9189-4.
Carvalho, L., Miller, C.A., Scott, E.M., Codd, G.A., Davies, P.S., Tyler, A.N., Cyanobacterial blooms: statistical models describing risk factors for national-scale lake assessment and lake management. Sci. Tot. Environ. 409 (2011), 5353–5358, 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.09.030.
Carvalho, L., Poikane, S., Lyche-Solheim, A., Phillips, G., Borics, G., Catalan, J., De Hoyos, C., Drakare, S., Dudley, B.J., Järvinen, M., Laplace-Treyture, C., Maileht, K., McDonald, C., Mischke, U., Moe, J., Morabito, G., Nõges, P., Nõges, T., Ott, I., Pasztaleniec, A., Skjelbred, B., Thackeray, S.J., Strength and uncertainty of phytoplankton metrics for assessing eutrophication impacts in lakes. Hydrobiologia 704 (2013), 127–140, 10.1007/s10750-012-1344-1.
Chapman, L.J., Chapman, C.A., Crisman, T.L., Nordlie, F.G., Dissolved oxygen and thermal regimes of a Ugandan crater lake. Hydrobiologia 385 (1998), 201–211.
Chorus, I., Bartram, J., Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water: A Guide to their Public Health Consequences, Monitoring and Management. 1999, Routledge, London and New York doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2427.2003.01107.x.
Cocquyt, C., Plisnier, P.-D., Gelorini, V., Rumes, B., Verschuren, D., Observations on the limnology and phytoplankton community of crater Lake Kyaninga (Uganda), with special attention to its diatom flora. Plant Ecol. Evol. 143 (2010), 365–377, 10.5091/plecevo.2010.420.
Crisman, T.L., Chapman, L.J., Chapman, C.A., Printer, J., Cultural eutrophication of a Ugandan highland crater lake: 25-year comparison of limnological parameters. Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol. 17 (2001), 272–282.
De Crop, W., Verschuren, D., Determining patterns of stratification and mixing in tropical crater lakes based on intermittent water-column profiling: a case study in western Uganda. J. Afr. Earth Sci. 153 (2019), 17–30.
Dillon, P.J., Rigler, F.H., A simple model for predicting the capacity of a lake for development based on Lake Trophic Status. J. Fish. Res. Board Canada 32 (1975), 1519–1531.
Dobson, H., Trophic conditions and trends in the Laurentian Great Lakes. Wat. Qual. Bull. 6 (1981), 146–151.
Dobson, H.F.H., Gilbertson, M., Sly, P.G., A summary and comparison of nutrients and related water quality in Lakes Erie, Ontario, Huron and Superior. J. Fish. Res. Bd Can. 31 (1974), 731–738.
Dokulil, M.T., Teubner, K., Cyanobacterial dominance in lakes. Hydrobiologia 438 (2000), 1–12.
Downing, A., Watson, B., McCauley, E., Predicting Cyanobacteria dominance in lakes. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 58 (2001), 1905–1908.
Downing, J.A., McCauley, E., The nitrogen: phosphorus relationship in lakes. Limnol. Oceanogr. 37 (1992), 936–945.
EC-JRC (European Commission Joint Research Centre), 2015. Annual Report 2014. Publications Office of the European Union, Brussels. doi: 10.2788/1795.
European Commission, 2000. Directive 2000/60/EC of the European parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for community action in the field of water policy. Official Journal of the European Communities L 327, 1-72.
Efitre, J., Chapman, L.J., Murie, D.J., Fish condition in introduced tilapias of Ugandan crater lakes in relation to deforestation and fishing pressure. Environ. Biol. Fish 85 (2009), 63–75, 10.1007/s10641-009-9461-z.
EPA (Environmental Protection Agency), 2009. National Lakes Assessment: A collaborative survey of the Nation's lakes – low resolution full report. Washington, D.C.
Fee, E.J., Hecky, R.E., Kasian, S.E.M., Cruikshank, D.R., Physical and chemical responses of lakes and streams. Limnol. Oceanogr. 41 (1996), 912–920.
Ganf, G.G., Phytoplankton biomass and distribution in a shallow equatiorial ake (Lake George, Uganda). Oecologia 29 (1974), 9–29.
Ganf, G.G., Oliver, R.L., Vertical separation of light and available nutrients as a factor causing replacement of green algae by blue-green algae in the plankton of a stratified lake. J. Ecol. 70 (1982), 829–844.
Gasse, F., 1986. East African diatoms: Taxonomy, ecological distribution. Bibliotheca Diatomologica 11, Cramer, Berlin.
Gelorini, V., Verbeken, A., Lens, L., Eggermont, H., Odgaard, B., Verschuren, D., Effects of land use on the fungal spore richness in small crater-lake basins of western Uganda. Fung. Div. 55 (2012), 125–142.
Guildford, S.J., Hecky, R.E., Total nitrogen, total phosphorus, and nutrient limitation in lakes and oceans: is there a common relationship?. Limnol. Oceanogr. 45 (2000), 1213–1223, 10.4319/lo.2000.45.6.1213.
Haande, S., Rohrlack, T., Semyalo, R.P., Brettum, P., Edvardsen, B., Lyche-Solheim, A., Sørensen, K., Larsson, P., Phytoplankton dynamics and cyanobacterial dominance in Murchison Bay of Lake Victoria (Uganda) in relation to environmental conditions. Limnologica 41 (2011), 20–29, 10.1016/j.limno.2010.04.001.
Håkanson, L., Bryhn, A.C., Hytteborn, J.K., On the issue of limiting nutrient and predictions of cyanobacteria in aquatic systems. Sci. Tot. Envir. 379 (2007), 89–108, 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2007.03.009.
Hartter, J., Stampone, M.D., Ryan, S.J., Kirner, K., Chapman, C.A., Patterns and perceptions of climate change in a biodiversity conservation hotspot. PLoS ONE 7 (2012), 2–27, 10.1371/journal.pone.0032408.
Havens, K.E., James, R.T., East, T.L., Smith, V.H., N: P ratios, light limitation, and cyanobacterial dominance in a subtropical lake impacted by non-point source nutrient pollution. Environ. Pollut. 122 (2003), 379–390, 10.1016/S0269-7491(02)00304-4.
Hawkins, P.R., Holliday, J., Kathuria, A., Bowling, L., Change in cyanobacterial biovolume due to preservation by Lugol's Iodine. Harmful Algae 4 (2005), 1033–1043, 10.1016/j.hal.2005.03.001.
Hecky, R.E., The eutrophication of Lake Victoria. Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol. 25 (1993), 39–48.
Hecky, R.E., Bootsma, H.A., Mugidde, R., Bugenyi, F.W.B., Phosphorus pumps, nitrogen sinks and silicon drains: plumbing nutrients in the African Great Lakes. Johnson, T.C., Odada, E.O., (eds.) The Limnology, Climatology and Paleoclimatology of the East African Lakes, 1996, Gordon and Breach, 205–224.
Hillebrand, H., Durselen, C.D., Kirschtel, D., Pollingher, U., Zohary, T., Biovolume calculation for pelagic and benthic microalgae. J. Phycol. 35 (1999), 403–424.
Hilton, J., A conceptual framework for predicting the occurrence of sediment focusing and sediment redistribution in small lakes. Limnol. Oceanogr. 30 (1985), 1131–1143.
Howarth, R.W., Marino, R., Cole, J.J., Nitrogen fixation in freshwater, estuarine, and marine ecosystems. 1. Biogeochemical controls. Limnol. Oceanogr. 33 (1988), 688–701, 10.4319/lo.1988.33.4_part_2.0688.
Huszar, V.L.M., Silva, L.H.S., Domingos, P., Marinho, M., Melo, S., Phytoplankton species composition is more sensitive than OECD criteria to the trophic status of three Brazilian tropical lakes. Hydrobiologia 369:370 (1998), 59–71, 10.1023/A:1017047221384.
Hyenstrand, P., Nyvall, P., Pettersson, A., Blomqvist, P., Regulation of non-nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria by inorganic nitrogen sources-experiments from Lake Erken. Adv. Limnol. 51 (1998), 29–40.
Järvinen, M., Drakare, S., Free, G., Lyche-Solheim, A., Phillips, G., Skjelbred, B., Mischke, U., Ott, I., Poikane, S., Sondergaard, M., Pasztaleniec, A., Van Wichelen, J., Portielje, R., Phytoplankton indicator taxa for reference conditions in northern and central European lowland lakes. Hydrobiologia 704 (2013), 97–113, 10.1007/s10750-012-1315-6.
John, M.D., Whitton, A.B., Brook, J.A., The Freshwater Algal Flora of the British Isles. An Identification Guide to Freshwater and Terrestrial Algae. 2002, Cambridge University Press, London.
Kizito, Y.S., Nauwerck, A., Chapman, L.J., Koste, W., A limnological survey of some western Uganda crater lakes. Limnologica 23 (1993), 335–347.
Kling, H.J., Mugidde, R., Hecky, R.E., Recent changes in the phytoplankton community in response to eutrophication. Munawar, M., Hecky, R.E., (eds.) The Great Lakes of the World (GLOW): Food-web, Health and Integrity, 2001, Backhuys, Leiden, 44–65.
Lewis, W.M., Tropical lakes: how latitude makes a difference. Perspect. Tropical Limnol., 1996, 43–64.
Lewis, W.M., Basis for the protection and management of tropical lakes. Lakes Reservoirs: Res. Manage. 5 (2000), 35–48.
Lewis, W.M., Causes for nitrogen limitation in tropical lakes. Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol. 28 (2002), 210–213.
Litchman, E., Pinto, P.D., Klausmeier, C.A., Thomas, M.K., Yoshiyama, K., Linking traits to species diversity and community structure in phytoplankton. Hydrobiologia 653 (2010), 15–28, 10.1007/s10750-010-0341-5.
Livingstone, D.A., Melack, J.M., Some lakes of sub-Saharan Africa in Ecosystems of the world. Taub, F.B., (eds.) Lakes and Reservoirs, 1984, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 467–497.
Lorenzen, C.J., Determination of chlorophyll and pheo-pigments: spectrophotometric equations. Limnol. Oceanogr. 12 (1967), 343–346, 10.4319/lo.1967.12.2.0343.
Lund, J.W., Kipling, G.C., Le Cren, E.E., The inverted microscope method of estimating algal numbers and the statistical basis of estimation by counting. Hydrobiologia 11 (1958), 143–170.
Lurling, M., Waajen, G., Domis, L.N.D., Evaluation of several end-of-pipe measures proposed to control cyanobacteria. Aquat. Ecol. 50 (2016), 499–519, 10.1007/s10452-015-9563-y.
Maileht, K., Nõges, T., Nõges, P., Ott, I., Mischke, U., Carvalho, L., Dudley, B., Water colour, phosphorus and alkalinity are the major determinants of the dominant phytoplankton species in European lakes. Hydrobiologia 704 (2013), 115–126, 10.1002/2013WR015167.
Melack, J.M., Morphometric, physical and chemical features of the volcanic crater lakes of western Uganda. Arch. Hydrobiol. 84 (1978), 430–453.
Mills, K., Ryves, D.B., Anderson, N.J., Bryant, C.L., Tyler, J.J., Expressions of climate perturbations in western Ugandan crater lake sediment records during the last 1000 years. Clim. Past 10 (2014), 1581–1601, 10.5194/cp-10-1581-2014.
Mischke, U., Riedmüller, U., Hoehn, E., Schönfelder, I., Nixdorf, B., Description of the German System for Phytoplankton-based Assessment of Lakes for Implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD). 2008, Cottbus University doi: 10.13140/2.1.3545.1847.
Montagnes, D.J.S., Berges, J.A., Harrison, P.J., Taylor, F.J.R., Estimating carbon, nitrogen, protein, and chlorophyll a from volume in marine phytoplankton. Limnol. Oceanogr., 1994, 10.4319/lo.1994.39.5.1044.
Mugidde, R., Hecky, R.E., Hendzel, L.L., Taylor, W.D., Pelagic nitrogen fixation in Lake Victoria (East Africa). J. Great Lakes Res. 29 (2003), 76–88, 10.1016/S0380-1330.
Mungoma, S., The alkaline, saline lakes of Uganda: a review. Hydrobiologia 208 (1990), 75–80, 10.1007/BF00008445.
Mutai, C.C., Ward, M.N., East African rainfall and the tropical circulation/convection on intraseasonal to interannual timescales. J. Clim. 13 (2000), 3915–3939, 10.1175/1520-0442.
Nash, D.J., De Cort, G., Chase, B.M., Verschuren, D., Nicholson, S.E., Shanahan, T.M., Asrat, A., Lezine, A.M., Grab, S.W., African hydroclimatic variability during the last 2000 years. Quat. Sci. Rev. 154 (2016), 1–22.
Nicholson, S.E., A review of climate dynamics and climate variability in eastern Africa. Johnson, T.C., Odada, E.O., (eds.) The Limnology, Climatology and Paleoclimatology of the East African Lakes, 1996, Gordon and Breach, 25–56.
Nürnberg, G.K., Trophic state of clear and colored, soft- and hardwater lakes with special consideration of nutrients, anoxia, phytoplankton and fish. Lake Reserv. Manage. 12 (1996), 432–447, 10.1080/07438149609354283.
Nyakoojo, C., The composition and abundance of phytoplankton in Lake Bukoni, western Uganda. Afr. J. Ecol. 48 (2010), 1039–1044.
Nyakoojo, C., Byarujali, S.M., An ecological study of two shallow, equatorial lakes: Lake Mburo and Lake Kachera, Uganda. Afr. J. Ecol. 48 (2010), 860–864, 10.1111/j.1365-2028.2010.01215.x.
Nyakoojo, C., Byarujali, S.M., Temporal distribution of phytoplankton in Lake Nyamusingiri in the Albertine Rift Valley, Uganda. Afr. J. Ecol. 48 (2010), 865–870, 10.1111/j.1365-2028.2010.01216.x.
Ochumba, P.B.O., Kibaara, D.I., Observations on blue-green algal blooms in the open waters of Lake Victoria, Kenya. Afr. J. Ecol. 27 (1989), 23–34.
OECD, 1982. Eutrophication of Waters; monitoring, assessment and control. OECD Tech. Report F 52/11.50. Paris & Washington, 153 pp.
Okello, W., Ostermaier, V., Portmann, C., Gademann, K., Kurmayer, R., Spatial isolation favours the divergence in microcystin net production by Microcystis in Ugandan freshwater lakes. Water Res. 44 (2010), 2803–2814.
Okello, W., Portmann, C., Erhard, M., Gademann, K., Kurmayer, R., Occurrence of microcystin-producing cyanobacteria in Ugandan freshwater habitats. Environ. Toxicol. 25 (2010), 367–380, 10.1002/tox.20522.
Padisák, J., Borics, G., Fehér, G., Grigorszky, I., Oldal, I., Schmidt, A., Zámbóné-Doma, Z., Deep layer cyanoprokaryota maxima in temperate and tropical lakes. Adv. Limnol., 2003, 175–199.
Paerl, H.W., Huisman, J., Climate: blooms like it hot. Science 320 (2008), 57–58, 10.1126/science.1155398.
Poikane, S., Helena Alves, M., Argillier, C., van den Berg, M., Buzzi, F., Hoehn, E., de Hoyos, C., Karottki, I., Laplace-Treyture, C., Lyche Solheim, A., Ortiz-Casas, J., Ott, I., Phillips, G., Pilke, A., Pádua, J., Remec-Rekar, S., Riedmüller, U., Schaumburg, J., Luisa Serrano, M., Soszka, H., Tierney, D., Urbanic, G., Wolfram, G., Defining chlorophyll-a reference conditions in European Lakes. Environ. Manage. 45 (2010), 1286–1298, 10.1007/s00267-010-9484-4.
Poikane, S., van den Berg, M., de Hoyos, C., Hellsten, S., Ortiz-Casas, J., Pall, K., Portielje, R., Phillips, G., Lyche Solheim, A., Tierney, D., Wolfram, G., van de Bund, W., Lake ecological assessment systems and intercalibration for the European Water Framework Directive: aims, achievements and further challenges. Procedia Environ. Sci. 9 (2011), 153–168, 10.1016/j.proenv.2011.11.024.
Posch, T., Köster, O., Salcher, M.M., Pernthaler, J., Harmful filamentous cyanobacteria favoured by reduced water turnover with lake warming. Nature Climate Change 2 (2012), 809–813, 10.1038/nclimate1581.
Poste, A.E., Hecky, R.E., Guildford, S.J., Phosphorus enrichment and carbon depletion contribute to high Microcystis biomass and microcystin concentrations in Ugandan lakes. Limnol. Oceanogr. 58 (2013), 1075–1088.
Studio Team, R., RStudio: Integrated Development for R. 2015, RStudio, Boston.
Reynolds, C.S., The Ecology of Freshwater Phytoplankton. 1984, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Reynolds, C.S., The Ecology of Phytoplankton. 2006, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge doi: 10.1017/CBO9780511542145.
Richardson, J., Miller, C., Maberly, S.C., Taylor, P., Globevnik, L., Hunter, P., Jeppesen, E., Mischke, U., Moe, S.J., Pasztaleniec, A., Søndergaard, M., Carvalho, L., Effects of multiple stressors on cyanobacteria abundance varies with lake type. Change Biol. Glob., 2018, 10.1111/gcb.14396.
Rigosi, A., Carey, C.C., Ibelings, B.W., Brookes, J.D., The interaction between climate warming and eutrophication to promote cyanobacteria is dependent on trophic state and varies among taxa. Limnol. Oceanogr. 59 (2014), 99–114, 10.4319/lo.2014.59.01.0099.
Rumes, B., Eggermont, H., Verschuren, D., Distribution and faunal richness of Cladocera in western Uganda crater lakes. Hydrobiologia, 2011, 10.1007/s10750-011-0829-7.
Russell, J.M., Eggermont, H., Verschuren, D., Spatial complexity of ‘Little Ice Age’ climate in East Africa: sedimentary records from two crater lake basins in western Uganda. The Holocene 17 (2007), 183–193.
Ryves, D., Mills, K., Bennike, O., Brodersen, K.P., Lamb, A.L., Leng, M.J., Russell, J.M., Ssemmanda, I., Environmental change over the last millennium recorded in two contrasting crater lakes in western Uganda, eastern Africa. Quat. Sci. Rev. 30 (2011), 555–569.
Salmaso, N., Morabito, G., Buzzi, F., Garibaldi, L., Simona, M., Mosello, R., Phytoplankton as an indicator of the water quality of the deep lakes south of the Alps. Hydrobiologia 563 (2006), 167–187, 10.1007/s10750-005-0003-1.
Saulnier-Talbot, É., Gregory-Eaves, I., Simpson, K.G., Efitre, J., Nowlan, T.E., Taranu, Z.E., Chapman, L.J., Small changes in climate can profoundly alter the dynamics and ecosystem services of tropical crater lakes. PLoS ONE, 9, 2014, e86561.
Scheffer, M., Rinaldi, S., Gragnani, A., Mur, L.R., Van Nes, E.H., On the dominance of filamentous cyanobacteria in shallow, turbid lakes. Ecology 78 (1997), 272–282.
Schindler, D.W., Factors regulating phytoplankton production and standing crop in the world's freshwaters. Limnol. Oceanogr. 23 (1978), 478–486.
Semyalo, R., Rohrlack, T., Kayiira, D., Kizito, Y.S., Byarujali, S., Nyakairu, G., Larsson, P., On the diet of Nile tilapia in two eutrophic tropical lakes containing toxin producing cyanobacteria. Limnologica 41 (2011), 30–36.
Shapiro, J., The role of carbon dioxide in the initiation and maintenance of blue-green dominance in lakes. Freshwat. Biol. 37 (1997), 307–323.
Smith, V.H., Low nitrogen to phosphorus ratios favor dominance by blue-green algae in lake phytoplankton. Science 221 (1983), 669–671.
Søndergaard, M., Larsen, S.E., Jørgensen, T.B., Jeppesen, E., Using chlorophyll a and cyanobacteria in the ecological classification of lakes. Ecol. Indicators 11 (2011), 1403–1412, 10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.03.002.
Ssemmanda, I., Gelorini, V., Verschuren, D., Sensitivity of the grassland-forest ecotone in East African open woodland savannah to historical rainfall variation. Clim. Past 10 (2014), 2067–2080, 10.5194/cpd-10-1675-2014.
Talling, J.F., The annual cycle of stratification and phytoplankton growth in Lake Victoria (East Africa). Internat. Rev. ges. Hydrobiol. Hydrogr. 51 (1966), 545–621, 10.1002/iroh.19660510402.
Talling, J.F., The incidence of vertical mixing, and some biological and chemical consequences, in tropical African lakes. Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol. 17 (1969), 998–1012.
Talling, J.F., The seasonality of phytoplankton in African lakes. Hydrobiologia 138 (1986), 139–160, 10.1007/BF00027237.
Talling, J.F., The phytoplankton of Lake Victoria (East Africa). Arch. Hydrobiol. Adv. Limnol. 25 (1987), 229–256.
Talling, J.F., Environmental regulation in African shallow lakes and wetlands. Rev. Hydrobiol. Trop. 25 (1992), 87–144.
Talling, J.F., Lemoalle, J., Ecological Dynamics of Tropical Inland Waters. 1998, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge doi: 10.1002/1099-0755(200005/06).
Taranu, Z.E., Zurawell, R.W., Pick, F., Gregory-Eaves, I., Predicting cyanobacterial dynamics in the face of global change: the importance of scale and environmental context. Glob. Change Biol. 18 (2012), 3477–3490, 10.1111/gcb.12015.
Trimbee, A.M., Prepas, E.E., Evaluation of total phosphorus as a predictor of the relative biomass of blue-green algae with emphasis on Alberta lakes. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 44 (1987), 1337–1342.
Utermöhl, H., Neue wege in der quantitativen erfassung des planktonts. Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol. 5 (1931), 567–596.
Van Heukelem, L., Thomas, C.S., Computer-assisted high-performance liquid chromatography method development with applications to the isolation and analysis of phytoplankton pigments. J. Chromatogr. A 910 (2001), 31–49.
Verschuren, D., Decadal to century-scale climate variability in tropical Africa during the past 2000 years. Dev. Paleoenv. Res. 6 (2004), 139–158.
Vincent, W.F., Vincent, C.L., Downes, M.T., Richerson, P.J., Nitrate cycling in Lake Titicaca (Peru-Bolivia): the effects of high-altitude and tropicality. Freshwat. Biol. 15 (1985), 31–42, 10.1111/j.1365-2427.1985.tb00694.x.
Vollenweider, R.A., Concept of nutrient load as a basis for the external control of the eutrophication process in lakes and reservoirs. J. Water Wastewater Res. 12 (1979), 46–56.
Wagner, C., Adrian, R., Cyanobacteria dominance: quantifying the effects of climate change. Limnol. Oceanogr. 54 (2009), 2460–2468, 10.4319/lo.2009.54.6_part_2.2460.
Watson, S.B., McCauley, E., Downing, J.A., Patterns in phytoplankton taxonomic composition across temperate lakes of differing nutrient status. Limnol. Oceanogr. 42 (1997), 487–495, 10.4319/lo.1997.42.3.0487.
