Predicting anxiety from wholebrain activity patterns to emotional faces in young adults: a machine learning approach

Portugal, Liana; Schrouff, Jessica; Stiffler, R; Bertocci, M; Bebko, G; Chase, H; Lockovitch, J; Aslam, H; Graur, S; Greenberg, T; Pereira, M; Oliveira, L; Phillips, M; Mourao-Miranda, Janaina

doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2019.101813

Download

Article (Scientific journals)

Predicting anxiety from wholebrain activity patterns to emotional faces in young adults: a machine learning approach

Portugal, Liana; Schrouff, Jessica; Stiffler, R et al.

2019 • In NeuroImage: Clinical, 23

Peer Reviewed verified by ORBi

Permalink
https://hdl.handle.net/2268/236352

DOI
10.1016/j.nicl.2019.101813

PubMed
31082774

Files (1)Send to Details Statistics Bibliography Similar publications

Files

Full Text

1-s2.0-S2213158219301639-main.pdf

Publisher postprint (1.03 MB)

Download

All documents in ORBi are protected by a user license.

Send to

RIS BibTex APA Chicago Permalink X Linkedin

Details

Keywords :

RDoC; Anxiety; Depression; fMRI; Pattern recognition; Faces

Disciplines :

Psychiatry

Author, co-author :

Portugal, Liana

Schrouff, Jessica ; University College London - UCL

Stiffler, R

Bertocci, M

Bebko, G

Chase, H

Lockovitch, J

Aslam, H

Graur, S

Greenberg, T

More authors (4 more)

Language :

English

Title :

Predicting anxiety from wholebrain activity patterns to emotional faces in young adults: a machine learning approach

Publication date :

2019

Journal title :

NeuroImage: Clinical

eISSN :

2213-1582

Publisher :

Elsevier, Netherlands

Volume :

Peer reviewed :

Peer Reviewed verified by ORBi

Additional URL :

http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/10074679/

European Projects :

H2020 - 654038 - DecoMP_ECoG - Decoding memory processing from experimental and spontaneous human brain activity using intracranial electrophysiological recordings and machine learning based methods.

Funders :

CE - Commission Européenne [BE]

Available on ORBi :

since 05 June 2019

Statistics

Number of views

76 (1 by ULiège)

Number of downloads

72 (0 by ULiège)

More statistics

Scopus citations^®

Scopus citations^®
without self-citations

OpenCitations

Bibliography

Annett, M., A classification of hand preference by association analysis. Br. J. Psychol. 61:3 (1970), 303–321 PMID:5457503 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1970.tb01248.x.
Behzadi, Y., Restom, K., Liau, J., Liu, T.T., A component based noise correction method (CompCor)for BOLD and perfusion based fMRI. Neuroimage 37 (2007), 90–101 PMID:17560126 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.04.042.
Bienvenu, O.J., Brown, C., Samuels, J.F., Liang, K.Y., Costa, P.T., Eaton, W.W., Nestadt, G., Normal personality traits and comorbidity among phobic, panic and major depressive disorders. Psychiatry Res. 102 (2001), 73–85 PMID:11368842 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-1781(01)00228-1.
Blair, J.R., Spreen, O., Predicting premorbid IQ: a revision of the national adult reading test. Clin. Neuropsychol. 3:2 (1989), 129–136, 10.1080/13854048908403285.
Blair, K., Shaywitz, J., Smith, B.W., Rhodes, R., Geraci, M., Jones, M., Mondillo, K., Response to emotional expressions in generalized social phobia and generalized anxiety disorder: evidence for separate disorders. Am. J. Psychiatry 165 (2008), 1193–1202 PMID:18483136 https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.07071060.
Chambers, J.A., Power, K.G., Durham, R.C., The relationship between trait vulnerability and anxiety and depressive diagnoses at long-term follow-up of generalized anxiety disorder. J. Anxiety Disord. 18 (2004), 587–607 PMID:15275941 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2003.09.001.
Chase, H.W., Fournier, J.C., Bertocci, M.A., Greenberg, T., Aslam, H., Stiffler, R., Lockovich, J., Graur, S., Bebko, G., Forbes, E.E., Phillips, M.L., Transl. Psychiatr., 7(4), 2017, e1096 18. PMID: 28418404 https://doi.org/10.1038/tp.2017.60.
Clark, L.A., Watson, D., Tripartite model of anxiety and depression: psychometric evidence and taxonomic implications. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 100:3 (1991), 316–336 PMID:1918611 https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.100.3.316.
Cohen, J.R., Asarnow, R.F., Sabb, F.W., Bilder, R.M., Bookheimer, S.Y., Knowlton, B.J., Poldrack, R.A., Decoding continuous variables from neuroimaging data: basic and clinical applications. Front. Neurosci., 5, 2011, 75 PMID: 21720520 https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2011.00075.
Cuthbert, B.N., Insel, T.R., Toward the future of psychiatric diagnosis: the seven pillars of RDoC. BMC Med., 11, 2013, 126 PMID:23672542 https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-11-126.
Demenescu, L.R., Renken, R., Kortekaas, R., van Tol, M.J., Marsman, J.B., van Buchem, M.A., van der Wee, N.J., Veltman, D.J., den Boer, J.A., Aleman, A., Neural correlates of perception of emotional facial expressions in out-patients with mild-to-moderate depression and anxiety. A multicenter fMRI study. Psychol. Med. 41:11 (2011), 2253–2264 PMID:21557888 https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291711000596.
Dinga, R., Schmaal, L., Penninx, B., van Tol, M.J., Veltman, D.J., van Velzen, L., van der Wee, N., Marquand, A., Evaluating the evidence for biotypes of depression: attempted replication of Drysdale et.al. 2017. bioRxiv, 2018.
Drysdale, A.T., Grosenick, L., Downar, J., Dunlop, K., Mansouri, F., Meng, Y., Fetcho, R.N., Zebley, B., Oathes, D.J., Etkin, A., Schatzberg, A.F., Sudheimer, K., Keller, J., Mayberg, H.S., Gunning, F.M., Alexopoulos, G.S., Fox, M.D., Pascual-Leone, A., Voss, H.U., Casey, B.J., Dubin, M.J., Liston, C., Resting-state connectivity biomarkers define neurophysiological subtypes of depression. Nat Med., 23(1), 2016, 10.1038/nm.4246 PMID: 27918562.
Duval, E.R., Javanbakht, A., Liberzon, I., Neural circuits in anxiety and stress disorders: a focused review. Ther. Clin. Risk Manag. 23:11 (2015), 115–126 PMID:25670901 https://doi.org/10.2147/TCRM.S48528.
Fernandes, O. Jr., Portugal, L.C.L., Alves, R.C.S., Arruda-Sanchez, T., Rao, A., Volchan, E., Pereira, M., Oliveira, L., Mourao-Miranda, J., Decoding negative affect personality trait from patterns of brain activation to threat stimuli. Neuroimage 145:Pt B (2017), 337–345 PMID:26767946 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.12.050.
First, M.B., Spitzer, R.L., Gibbon, M., Willians, J.B.W., Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders _ (SCID-, version 2.0). 1995, Biometric Research Department, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York.
Folstein, M.F., Folstein, S.E., McHugh, P.R., “Mini-mental state”. A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. J. Psychiatr. Res. 12:3 (1975), 189–198 PMID:1202204 https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3956(75)90026-6.
Fournier, J.C., Keener, M.T., Mullin, B.C., Hafeman, D.M., Labarbara, E.J., Stiffler, R.S., Almeida, J., Kronhaus, D.M., Frank, E., Phillips, M.L., Heterogeneity of amygdala response in major depressive disorder: the impact of lifetime subthreshold mania. Psychol. Med., 2012, 1–10 PMID:22571805 https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291712000918.
Fournier, J.C., Chase, H.W., Almeida, J., Phillips, M.L., Model specification and the reliability of fMRI results: implications for longitudinal neuroimaging studies in psychiatry. PLoS One, 9, 2014, e105169 PMID:25166022 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0105169.
Fusar-Poli, P., Placentino, A., Carletti, F., Landi, P., Allen, P., Surguladze, S., Benedetti, F., Abbamonte, M., Gasparotti, R., Barale, F., Perez, J., McGuire, P., Politi, P., Functional atlas of emotional faces processing: a voxel-based meta-analysis of 105 functional magnetic. J. Psychiatry Neurosci. 34:6 (2009), 418–432 (PMID:19949718).
Gabrieli, J.D., Ghosh, S.S., Whitfield-Gabrieli, S., Prediction as a humanitarian and pragmatic contribution from human cognitive neuroscience. Neuron 85 (2015), 11–26 PMID:25569345 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2014.10.047.
Goldberg, D., Plato versus Aristotle: categorical and dimensional models for common mental disorders. Compr. Psychiatry 41 (2000), 8–13 PMID:10746898 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-440X(00)80002-4.
Gorgolewski, K., Burns, C.D., Madison, C., Clark, D., Halchenko, Y.O., Waskom, M.L., Ghosh, S.S., Nipype: a flexible, lightweight and extensible neuroimaging data processing framework in python. Front. Neuroinform, 5, 2011, 13 PMID:21897815 https://doi.org/10.3389/fninf.2011.00013.
Greenberg, T., Bertocci, M.A., Chase, H.W., Stiffler, R., Aslam, H.A., Graur, S., Bebko, G., Lockovich, J.C., Phillips, M.L., Mediation by anxiety of the relationship between amygdala activity during emotion processing and poor quality of life in young adults. Transl. Psychiatry, 7(7), 2017, e1178 25. PMID: 28742077 https://doi.org/10.1038/tp.2017.127.
Hafeman, D., Bebko, G., Bertocci, M.A., Fournier, J.C., Chase, H.W., Bonar, L., Perlman, S.B., Travis, M., Gill, M.K., Diwadkar, V.A., Sunshine, J.L., Holland, S.K., Kowatch, R.A., Birmaher, B., Axelson, D., Horwitz, S.M., Arnold, L.E., Fristad, M.A., Frazier, T.W., Youngstrom, E.A., Findling, R.L., Phillips, M.L., Amygdala-prefrontal cortical functional connectivity during implicit emotion processing differentiates youth with bipolar spectrum from youth with externalizing disorders. J. Affect. Disord. 208 (2017), 94–100 PMID:27756046 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.09.064.
Hamilton, M., The assessment of anxiety states by rating. Br. J. Med. Psychol. 32 (1959), 50–55 PMID:13638508 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8341.1959.tb00467.x.
Hamilton, M., A rating scale for depression. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 23 (1960), 56–62 PMID:14399272 https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.23.1.56.
Hasler, G., Drevets, W.C., Gould, T.D., Gottesman, M.H. II, Toward constructing an endophenotype strategy for bipolar disorders. Biol. Psychiatry 60 (2006), 93–105 PMID:16406007 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.11.006.
Haufe, S., Meinecke, F., Görgen, K., Dähne, S., Haynes, J.D., Blankertz, B., Bießmann, F., On the interpretation of weight vectors of linear models in multivariate neuroimaging. Neuroimage 15:87 (2014), 96–110, 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.10.067.
Haynes, J.-D., Rees, G., Decoding mental states from brain activity in humans. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 7 (2006), 523–534 PMID:16791142 https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1931.
Helzer, J.E., Kraemer, H.C., Krueger, R.F., The feasibility and need for dimensional psychiatric diagnoses. Psychol. Med. 36 (2006), 1671–1680 PMID:16907995 https://doi.org/10.1017/S003329170600821X.
Hyman, S.E., Can neuroscience be integrated into the DSM-V?. Nat. Ver. Neurosci. 8 (2007), 725–732 PMID:17704814 https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2218.
Insel, T., Cuthbert, B., Brain disorders? Precisely. Science 348 (2015), 499–500 PMID:25931539 https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aab2358.
Insel, T., Cuthbert, B., Garvey, M., Heinssen, R., Pine, D.S., Quinn, K., Sanislow, C., Wang, P., Research domain criteria (RDoC): toward a new classification framework for research on mental disorders. Am. J. Psychiatry 167:7 (2010), 748–751 PMID:20595427 https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.09091379.
Janssen, R.J., Mourão-Miranda, J., Schnack, H.G., Making individual prognoses in psychiatry using neuroimaging and machine learning. Biol. Psychiatr. Cogn. Neurosci. Neuroimaging 3:9 (2018), 798–808 PMID:29789268 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsc.2018.04.004.
Kapur, S., Phillips, A.G., Insel, T.R., Why has it taken so long for biological psychiatry to develop clinical tests and what to do about it?. Mol. Psychiatry 17 (2012), 1174–1179 PMID:22869033 https://doi.org/10.1038/mp.2012.105.
Kircanski, K., LeMoult, J., Ordaz, S., Gotlib, I.H., Investigating the nature of co-occurring depression and anxiety: comparing diagnostic and dimensional research approaches. J. Affect. Disord. 216 (2017), 123–135 PMID:27554605 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.08.006.
Kia, S.M., Vega Pons, S., Weisz, N., Passerini, A., Interpretability of Multivariate Brain Maps in Linear Brain Decoding: Definition, and Heuristic Quantification in Multivariate Analysis of MEG Time-Locked Effects. Front Neurosci, 10, 2017 10.3389/fnins.2016.00619.
Kleinman, A., Caetano, S.C., Brentani, H., Rocca, C.C., dos Santos, B., Andrade, E.R., Zeni, C.P., Tramontina, S., Rohde, L.A., Lafer, B., Attention-based classification pattern, a research domain criteria framework,in youths with bipolar disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Aust. N Z J. Psychiatry 49:3 (2015), 255–265 PMID:25392340 https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867414557957.
Levine, J., Cole, D.P., Chengappa, K.N., Gershon, S., Anxiety disorders and major depression, together or a part. Depress. Anxiety 14 (2001), 94–104 PMID:11668662 https://doi.org/10.1002/da.1051.
Lewandowski, K.E., Sperry, S.H., Cohen, B.M., Oenguer, D., Cognitive variability in psychotic disorders: across-diagnostic cluster analysis. Psychol. Med. 44 (2014), 3239–3248 PMID:25066202 https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291714000774.
MacNamara, A., Klumpp, H., Kennedy, A.E., Langenecker, S.A., Phan, K.L., Transdiagnostic neural correlates of affective face processing in anxiety and depression. Depress Anxiety 34:7 (2017), 621–631 PMID: 28453905 https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22631.
Maldjian, J.A., Laurienti, P.J., Kraft, R.A., Burdette, J.H., An automated method for neuroanatomic and cytoarchitectonic atlas-based interrogation of fMRI data sets. NeuroImage 19 (2003), 1233–1239 PMID:12880848 https://doi.org/10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00169-1.
Manelis, A., Ladouceur, C.D., Graur, S., Monk, K., Bonar, L.K., Hickey, M.B., Dwojak, A.C., Axelson, D., Goldstein, B.I., Goldstein, T.R., Bebko, G., Bertocci, M.A., Hafeman, D.M., Gill, M.K., Birmaher, B., Phillips, M.L., Altered amygdala-prefrontal response to facial emotion in offspring of parents with bipolar disorder. Brain 138:Pt 9 (2015), 2777–2790 PMID:26112339 https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awv176.
Marquand, A.F., Wolfers, T., Mennes, M., Buitelaar, J., Beckmann, C.F., Beyond lumping and splitting: a review of computational approaches for stratifying psychiatric disorders. Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging 1:5 (2016), 433–447 PMID:27642641 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsc.2016.04.002.
Miller, G.A., Chapman, J.P., Misunderstanding analysis of covariance. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 110:1 (2001), 40–48 PMID:11261398 https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.110.1.40.
Morris, S.E., Cuthbert, B.N., Research domain criteria: cognitive systems, neural circuits, and dimensions of behavior. Dialogues Clin. Neurosci. 14 (2012), 29–37 (PMID:22577302).
Nieuwenhuis, M., Schnack, H.G., van Haren, N.E., Lappin, J., Morgan, C., Reinders, A.A., Gutierrez-Tordesillas, D., Roiz-Santiañez, R., Schaufelberger, M.S., Rosa, P.G., Zanetti, M.V., Busatto, G.F., Crespo-Facorro, B., McGorry, P.D., Velakoulis, D., Pantelis, C., Wood, S.J., Kahn, R.S., Mourao-Miranda, J., Dazzan, P., Multi-center MRI prediction models: Predicting sex and illness course in first episode psychosis patients. Neuroimage 145:Pt B (2017), 246–253 15. PMID:27421184 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.07.027.
Oathes, D.J., Patenaude, B., Schatzberg, A.F., Etkin, A., Neurobiological signatures of anxiety and depression in resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging. Biol. Psychiatry 77:4 (2015), 385–393 PMID:25444162 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.08.006.
Olino, T.M., Klein, D.N., Lewinsohn, P.M., Rohde, P., Seeley, J.R., Latent trajectory classes of depressive and anxiety disorders from adolescence to adulthood: description of classes and associations with risk factors. Compr. Psychiatry 51 (2010), 224–235 PMID:20399331 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2009.07.002.
Phillips, M.L., Frank, E., Redefining bipolar disorder: toward DSM-V. Am. J. Psychiatry 163 (2006), 1135–1136 PMID:16816214 https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.163.7.1135.
Portugal, L.C., Rosa, M.J., Rao, A., Bebko, G., Bertocci, M.A., Hinze, A.K., Bonar, L., Almeida, J.R., Perlman, S.B., Versace, A., Schirda, C., Travis, M., Gill, M.K., Demeter, C., Diwadkar, V.A., Ciuffetelli, G., Rodriguez, E., Forbes, E.E., Sunshine, J.L., Holland, S.K., Kowatch, R.A., Birmaher, B., Axelson, D., Horwitz, S.M., Arnold, E.L., Fristad, M.A., Youngstrom, E.A., Findling, R.L., Pereira, M., Oliveira, L., Phillips, M.L., Mourao-Miranda, J., Can emotional and Behavioral Dysregulation in youth be decoded from functional neuroimaging?. PLoS One, 11(1), 2016, e0117603 5. PMID:26731403 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0117603.
Rao, A., Monteiro, J.M., Mourao-Miranda, J., Alzheimer's Disease Initiative, Predictive modelling using neuroimaging data in the presence of confounds. Neuroimage 150 (2017), 23–49 PMID:28143776 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.01.066.
Rasmussen, C.E., Williams, C.K.I., Gaussian processes for machine learning. Int. J. Neural Syst. 14 (2006), 69–106.
Sabatinelli, D., Fortune, E.E., Li, Q., Siddiqui, A., Krafft, C., Oliver, W.T., Beck, S., Jeffries, J., Emotional perception: meta-analyses of face and natural scene processing. Neuroimage 54:3 (2011), 2524–2533 PMID: 20951215 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.10.011.
SAMHSA, Results from the 2006 national survey on drug use and health: national findings. Studies OoA, 2007 (editor. Rockville, Md: DHHS Publication No. SMA 07-4293).
SAMHSA, National Survey on Drug Use and Health. 2010, Dept. of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies 2011, Rockville, MD.
Sanislow, C.A., Pine, D.S., Quinn, K.J., Kozak, M.J., Garvey, M.A., Heinssen, R.K., Wang, P.S., Cuthbert, B.N., Developing constructs for psychopathology research: research domain criteria. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 119 (2010), 631–639 PMID:20939653 https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020909.
Schrouff, J., Mourao-Miranda, J., Interpreting Weight Maps in Terms of Cognitive or Clinical Neuroscience: Nonsense? Pattern Recognition in Neuroimaging (PRNI), 2013 International Workshop on. 2018, 1–4.
Schrouff, J., Rosa, M.J., Rondina, J.M., Marquand, A.F., Chu, C., Ashburner, J., Phillips, C., Richiardi, J., Mourão-Miranda, J., PRoNTo: pattern recognition for neuroimaging toolbox. Neuroinformatics, 2013, 1–19 PMID:23417655 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12021-013-9178-1.
Schrouff, J., Cremers, J., Garraux, G., Baldassarre, L., Mourão-Miranda, J., Phillips, C., Localizing and comparing weight maps generated from linear kernel machine learning models. Pattern Recognition in Neuroimaging (PRNI), 2013 International Workshop on, 2013, 124–127.
Schrouff, J., Monteiro, J.M., Portugal, L., Rosa, M.J., Phillips, C., Mourão-Miranda, J., Embedding anatomical or functional knowledge in whole-brain multiple kernel learning models. Neuroinformatics 16:1 (2018), 117–143 PMID:29297140 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12021-017-9347-8.
Spielberger, C.D., Gorsuch, R.L., Lushene, R., State-Trait Anxiety Invenstory Test Manual Form Y. 1983, Consulting Psychological Press, Palo Alto, CA.
Stein, M., Simmons, A., Feinstein, J., Paulus, M., Increased amygdala and insula activation during emotion processing in anxiety-prone subjects. Am. J. Psychiatry 164 (2007), 318–327 PMID:17267796 https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.2007.164.2.318.
Stonnington, C.M., Chu, C., Klöppel, S., Jack, C.R. Jr., Ashburner, J., Frackowiak, R.S., Predicting clinical scores from magnetic resonance scans in Alzheimer's disease. Neuroimage 51 (2010), 1405–1413 PMID:20347044 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.03.051.
Stuhrmann, A., Suslow, T., Dannlowski, U., Facial emotion processing in major depression: a systematic review of neuroimaging findings. Biol. Mood Anxiety Disord., 1(10), 2011, 10.1186/2045-5380-1-10 PMID: 22738433.
Tottenham, N., Tanaka, J.W., Leon, A.C., McCarry, T., Nurse, M., Hare, T.A., Marcus, D.J., Westerlund, A., Casey, B.J., Nelson, C., The NimStim set of facial expressions: judgments from untrained research participants. Psychiatry Res., 2009, 242–249 PMID:19564050 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2008.05.006.
Uher, R., Perlis, R.H., Placentino, A., Dernovšek, M.Z., Henigsberg, N., Mors, O., Maier, W., McGuffin, P., Farmer, A., Self-report and clinician-rated measures of depression severity: can one replace the other?. Depress Anxiety 29:12 (2012), 1043–1049 PMID: 22933451 https://doi.org/10.1002/da.21993.
Weichwald, S., Meyer, T., Özdenizci, O., Schölkopf, B., Ball, T., Grosse-Wentrup, M., Causal interpretation rules for encoding and decoding models in neuroimaging. Neuroimage 110 (2015), 48–59 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.01.036.
Widiger, T.A., Clark, L.A., Toward DSM-V and the classification of psychopathology. Psychol. Bull 126 (2000), 946–963 PMID: 11107884 https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.126.6.946.
Widiger, T.A., Samuel, D.B., Diagnostic categories or dimensions? A question for the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders – fifth edition. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 114 (2005), 494–504 PMID:16351373 https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.114.4.494.