oil and gas emissions; atmospheric composition and trends; atmospheric monitoring; GEOS-Chem; light alkanes
Abstract :
[en] Emissions of C2-C5 alkanes from the U.S. oil and gas sector have changed rapidly over the last decade. We use a nested GEOS-Chem simulation driven by updated 2011NEI emissions with aircraft, surface and column observations to 1) examine spatial patterns in the emissions and observed atmospheric abundances of C2-C5 alkanes over the U.S., and 2) estimate the contribution of emissions from the U.S. oil and gas industry to these patterns. The oil and gas sector in the updated 2011NEI contributes over 80% of the total U.S. emissions of ethane (C2H6) and propane (C3H8), and emissions of these species are largest in the central U.S. Observed mixing ratios of C2-C5 alkanes show enhancements over the central U.S. below 2 km. A nested GEOS-Chem simulation underpredicts observed C3H8 mixing ratios in the boundary layer over several U.S. regions and the relative underprediction is not consistent, suggesting C3H8 emissions should receive more attention moving forward. Our decision to consider only C4-C5 alkane emissions as a single lumped species produces a geographic distribution similar to observations. Due to the increasing importance of oil and gas emissions in the U.S., we recommend continued support of existing long-term measurements of C2-C5 alkanes. We suggest additional monitoring of C2-C5 alkanes downwind of northeastern Colorado, Wyoming and western North Dakota to capture changes in these regions. The atmospheric chemistry modeling community should also evaluate whether chemical mechanisms that lump larger alkanes are sufficient to understand air quality issues in regions with large emissions of these species.
Research center :
Sphères - SPHERES
Disciplines :
Earth sciences & physical geography
Author, co-author :
Tzompa-Sosa, Z
Henderson, B H
Keller, C A
Travis, K
Mahieu, Emmanuel ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département d'astrophys., géophysique et océanographie (AGO) > Groupe infra-rouge de phys. atmosph. et solaire (GIRPAS)
Abeleira, A., Pollack, I. B., Sive, B., Zhou, Y., Fischer, E. V., & Farmer, D. K. (2017). Source characterization of volatile organic compounds in the Colorado Northern Front Range Metropolitan Area during spring and summer 2015. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 122, 3595–3613. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016jd026227
Aceves, M., & Grimalt, J. O. (1993). Seasonally dependent size distributions of aliphatic and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban aerosols from densely populated areas. Environmental Science & Technology, 27(13), 2896–2908. https://doi.org/10.1021/es00049a033
Atkinson, R., Baulch, D. L., Cox, R. A., Crowley, J. N., Hampson, R. F., Hynes, R. G., Jenkin, M. E., Rossi, M. J., & Troe, J. (2006). Evaluated kinetic and photochemical data for atmospheric chemistry: Volume II—Gas phase reactions of organic species. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 6(11), 3625–4055. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-6-3625-2006
Basevich, V. Y., Belyaev, A. A., Medvedev, S. N., Posvyanskii, V. S., & Frolov, S. M. (2012). Oxidation and combustion mechanisms of paraffin hydrocarbons: Transfer from C 1 -C 7 to C 8 H 18 , C 9 H 20 , and C 10 H 22 . Russian Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 5(6), 974–990. https://doi.org/10.1134/s1990793111060194
Bey, I., Jacob, D. J., Yantosca, R. M., Logan, J. A., Field, B. D., Fiore, A. M., Li, Q., Liu, H. Y., Mickley, L. J., & Schultz, M. G. (2001). Global modeling of tropospheric chemistry with assimilated meteorology: Model description and evaluation. Journal of Geophysical Research, 106(D19), 23,073–23,095. https://doi.org/10.1029/2001JD000807
Bi, X., Sheng, G., Peng, P. a., Chen, Y., & Fu, J. (2005). Size distribution of n-alkanes and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in urban and rural atmospheres of Guangzhou, China. Atmospheric Environment, 39(3), 477–487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2004.09.052
Blake, N. J., Barletta, B., Simpson, I. J., Schroeder, J., Hughes, S., Marrero, J. E., Meinardi, S., Blake, D. R., Apel, E. C., Hornbrook, R. S., & Emmons, L. K. (2014). Spatial distributions and source characterization of trace organic gases during SEAC 4 RS and comparison to DC3, paper presented at American Geophysical Union, San Francisco
Brandt, A. R., Heath, G. A., & Cooley, D. (2016). Methane leaks from natural gas systems follow extreme distributions. Environmental Science & Technology, 50(22), 12,512–12,520. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b04303
Brandt, A. R., Heath, G. A., Kort, E. A., O'Sullivan, F., Petron, G., Jordaan, S. M., Tans, P., Wilcox, J., Gopstein, A. M., Arent, D., Wofsy, S., Brown, N. J., Bradley, R., Stucky, G. D., Eardley, D., & Harriss, R. (2014). Methane leaks from North American natural gas systems. Science, 343(6172), 733–735. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1247045
Brantley, H. L., Thoma, E. D., & Eisele, A. P. (2015). Assessment of volatile organic compound and hazardous air pollutant emissions from oil and natural gas well pads using mobile remote and on-site direct measurements. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 65(9), 1072–1082. https://doi.org/10.1080/10962247.2015.1056888
Brantley, H. L., Thoma, E. D., Squier, W. C., Guven, B. B., & Lyon, D. (2014). Assessment of methane emissions from oil and gas production pads using mobile measurements. Environmental Science & Technology, 48(24), 14,508–14,515. https://doi.org/10.1021/es503070q
de Gouw, J. A., Parrish, D. D., Frost, G. J., & Trainer, M. (2014). Reduced emissions of CO 2 , NO x , and SO 2 from U.S. power plants owing to switch from coal to natural gas with combined cycle technology. Earth's Future, 2(2), 75–82. https://doi.org/10.1002/2013ef000196
Field, R. A., Soltis, J., McCarthy, M. C., Murphy, S., & Montague, D. C. (2015). Influence of oil and gas field operations on spatial and temporal distributions of atmospheric non-methane hydrocarbons and their effect on ozone formation in winter. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 15(6), 3527–3542. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-3527-2015
Franco, B., Bader, W., Toon, G. C., Bray, C., Perrin, A., Fischer, E. V., Sudo, K., Boone, C. D., Bovy, B., Lejeune, B., Servais, C., & Mahieu, E. (2015). Retrieval of ethane from ground-based FTIR solar spectra using improved spectroscopy: Recent burden increase above Jungfraujoch. Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy & Radiative Transfer, 160, 36–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jqsrt.2015.03.017
Franco, B., Mahieu, E., Emmons, L. K., Tzompa-Sosa, Z. A., Fischer, E. V., Sudo, K., Bovy, B., Conway, S., Griffin, D., Hannigan, J. W., Strong, K., & Walker, K. A. (2016). Evaluating ethane and methane emissions associated with the development of oil and natural gas extraction in North America. Environmental Research Letters, 11(4), 044010. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/11/4/044010
Gentner, D. R., Harley, R. A., Miller, A. M., & Goldstein, A. H. (2009). Diurnal and seasonal variability of gasoline-related volatile organic compound emissions in Riverside, California. Environmental Science & Technology, 43(12), 4247–4252. https://doi.org/10.1021/es9006228
Gilman, J. B., Lerner, B. M., Kuster, W. C., & de Gouw, J. A. (2013). Source signature of volatile organic compounds from oil and natural gas operations in northeastern Colorado. Environmental Science & Technology, 47(3), 1297–1305. https://doi.org/10.1021/es304119a
Goetz, J. D., Avery, A., Werden, B., Floerchinger, C., Fortner, E. C., Wormhoudt, J., Massoli, P., Herndon, S. C., Kolb, C. E., Knighton, W. B., Peischl, J., Warneke, C., de Gouw, J. A., Shaw, S. L., & DeCarlo, P. F. (2017). Analysis of local-scale background concentrations of methane and other gas-phase species in the Marcellus shale. Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene, 5, 1. https://doi.org/10.1525/elementa.182
Gomer, R., & Kistiakowsky, G. B. (1951). The rate constant of ethane formation from methyl radicals. The Journal of Chemical Physics, 19(1), 85–91. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1747995
Guo, H. (2012). Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from petroleum and their influence on photochemical smog formation in the atmosphere. Journal of Petroleum & Environmental Biotechnology, 03(01). https://doi.org/10.4172/2157-7463.1000e104
Halliday, H. S., Thompson, A. M., Wisthaler, A., Blake, D. R., Hornbrook, R. S., Mikoviny, T., Muller, M., Eichler, P., Apel, E. C., & Hills, A. J. (2016). Atmospheric benzene observations from oil and gas production in the Denver-Julesburg Basin in July and August 2014. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 121, 11,055–11,074. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JD025327
Hannigan, J. W., Coffey, M. T., & Goldman, A. (2009). Semiautonomous FTS observation system for remote sensing of stratospheric and tropospheric gases. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology, 26(9), 1814–1828. https://doi.org/10.1175/2009jtecha1230.1
Helmig, D., Rossabi, S., Hueber, J., Tans, P., Montzka, S. A., Masarie, K., Thoning, K., Plass-Duelmer, C., Claude, A., Carpenter, L. J., Lewis, A. C., Punjabi, S., Reimann, S., Vollmer, M. K., Steinbrecher, R., Hannigan, J. W., Emmons, L. K., Mahieu, E., Franco, B., Smale, D., & Pozzer, A. (2016). Reversal of global atmospheric ethane and propane trends largely due to US oil and natural gas production. Nature Geoscience, 9(7), 490–495. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2721
Helmig, D., Thompson, C. R., Evans, J., Boylan, P., Hueber, J., & Park, J. H. (2014). Highly elevated atmospheric levels of volatile organic compounds in the Uintah Basin, Utah. Environmental Science & Technology, 48(9), 4707–4715. https://doi.org/10.1021/es405046r
Johansson, J. K. E., Mellqvist, J., Samuelsson, J., Offerle, B., Lefer, B., Rappenglück, B., Flynn, J., & Yarwood, G. (2014). Emission measurements of alkenes, alkanes, SO2, and NO 2 from stationary sources in Southeast Texas over a 5 year period using SOF and mobile DOAS. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 119, 1973–1991. https://doi.org/10.1002/2013jd020485
Kang, M., Kanno, C. M., Reid, M. C., Zhang, X., Mauzerall, D. L., Celia, M. A., Chen, Y., & Onstott, T. C. (2014). Direct measurements of methane emissions from abandoned oil and gas wells in Pennsylvania. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111(51), 18,173–18,177. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1408315111
Keller, C. A., Long, M. S., Yantosca, R. M., Da Silva, A. M., Pawson, S., & Jacob, D. J. (2014). HEMCO v1.0: A versatile, ESMF-compliant component for calculating emissions in atmospheric models. Geoscientific Model Development, 7(4), 1409–1417. https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-7-1409-2014
Kirchstetter, T. W., Singer, B. C., Harley, R. A., Kendall, G. R., & Chan, W. (1996). Impact of oxygenated gasoline use on California light-duty vehicle emissions. Environmental Science & Technology, 30(2), 661–670. https://doi.org/10.1021/es950406p
Kort, E. A., Smith, M. L., Murray, L. T., Gvakharia, A., Brandt, A. R., Peischl, J., Ryerson, T. B., Sweeney, C., & Travis, K. (2016). Fugitive emissions from the Bakken shale illustrate role of shale production in global ethane shift. Geophysical Research Letters, 43, 4617–4623. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016gl068703
Koss, A. R., de Gouw, J., Warneke, C., Gilman, J. B., Lerner, B. M., Graus, M., Yuan, B., Edwards, P., Brown, S. S., Wild, R., Roberts, J. M., Bates, T. S., & Quinn, P. K. (2015). Photochemical aging of volatile organic compounds associated with oil and natural gas extraction in the Uintah Basin, UT, during a wintertime ozone formation event. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 15(10), 5727–5741. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-5727-2015
Kuhns, H., Green, M., & Etyemezian, V. (2003). Big bend regional aerosol and visibility observational (BRAVO) study emissions InventoryRep. Las Vegas, NV: Desert Research Institute
Lee, B. H., Munger, J. W., Wofsy, S. C., & Goldstein, A. H. (2006). Anthropogenic emissions of nonmethane hydrocarbons in the northeastern United States: Measured seasonal variations from 1992–1996 and 1999–2001. Journal of Geophysical Research, 111, D20307. https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JD006172
Lurmann, F. W., Lloyd, A. C., & Atkinson, R. (1986). A chemical mechanism for use in long-range transport/acid deposition computer modeling. Journal of Geophysical Research, 91(D10), 10,905–10,936. https://doi.org/10.1029/JD091iD10p10905
Miller, J. B., Lehman, S. J., Montzka, S. A., Sweeney, C., Miller, B. R., Karion, A., Wolak, C., Dlugokencky, J., Southon, J., Turnbull, J. C., & Pieter, P. (2012). Linking emissions of fossil fuel CO 2 and other anthropogenic trace gases using atmospheric 14 CO 2 . Journal of Geophysical Research, 117, D08302. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JD017048
Mitchell, A. L., Tkacik, D. S., Roscioli, J. R., Herndon, S. C., Yacovitch, T. I., Martinez, D. M., Vaughn, T. L., Williams, L. L., Sullivan, M. R., Floerchinger, C., Omara, M., Subramanian, R., Zimmerle, D., Marchese, A. J., & Robinson, A. L. (2015). Measurements of methane emissions from natural gas gathering facilities and processing plants: Measurement results. Environmental Science & Technology, 49(5), 3219–3227. https://doi.org/10.1021/es5052809
Naik, V., Voulgarakis, A., Fiore, A. M., Horowitz, L. W., Lamarque, J. F., Lin, M., Prather, M. J., Young, P. J., Bergmann, D., Cameron-Smith, P. J., Cionni, I., Collins, W. J., Dalsøren, S. B., Doherty, R., Eyring, V., Faluvegi, G., Folberth, G. A., Josse, B., Lee, Y. H., MacKenzie, I. A., Nagashima, T., van Noije, T. P. C., Plummer, D. A., Righi, M., Rumbold, S. T., Skeie, R., Shindell, D. T., Stevenson, D. S., Strode, S., Sudo, K., Szopa, S., & Zeng, G. (2013). Preindustrial to present-day changes in tropospheric hydroxyl radical and methane lifetime from the Atmospheric Chemistry and Climate Model Intercomparison Project (ACCMIP). Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 13(10), 5277–5298. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-5277-2013
Pacsi, A. P., Kimura, Y., McGaughey, G., McDonald-Buller, E. C., & Allen, D. T. (2015). Regional ozone impacts of increased natural gas use in the Texas power sector and development in the Eagle Ford shale. Environmental Science & Technology, 49(6), 3966–3973. https://doi.org/10.1021/es5055012
Peischl, J., Karion, A., Sweeney, C., Kort, E. A., Smith, M. L., Brandt, A. R., Yeskoo, T., Aikin, K. C., Conley, S. A., Gvakharia, A., Trainer, M., Wolter, S., & Ryerson, T. B. (2016). Quantifying atmospheric methane emissions from oil and natural gas production in the Bakken shale region of North Dakota. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 121, 6101–6111. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JD024631
Peischl, J., Ryerson, T. B., Aikin, K. C., de Gouw, J. A., Gilman, J. B., Holloway, J. S., Lerner, B. M., Nadkarni, R., Neuman, J. A., Nowak, J. B., Trainer, M., Warneke, C., & Parrish, D. D. (2015). Quantifying atmospheric methane emissions from the Haynesville, Fayetteville, and northeastern Marcellus shale gas production regions. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 120, 2119–2139. https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JD022697
Pétron, G., Frost, G., Miller, B. R., Hirsch, A. I., Montzka, S. A., Karion, A., Trainer, M., Sweeney, C., Andrews, A. E., Miller, L., Kofler, J., Bar-Ilan, A., Dlugokencky, E. J., Patrick, L., Moore, C. T. Jr., Ryerson, T. B., Siso, C., Kolodzey, W., Lang, P. M., Conway, T., Novelli, P., Masarie, K., Hall, B., Guenther, D., Kitzis, D., Miller, J., Welsh, D., Wolfe, D., Neff, W., & Tans, P. (2012). Hydrocarbon emissions characterization in the Colorado Front Range: A pilot study. Journal of Geophysical Research, 117, D04304. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JD016360
Pétron, G., Karion, A., Sweeney, C., Miller, B. R., Montzka, S. A., Frost, G. J., Trainer, M., Tans, P., Andrews, A., Kofler, J., Helmig, D., Guenther, D., Dlugokencky, E., Lang, P., Newberger, T., Wolter, S., Hall, B., Novelli, P., Brewer, A., Conley, S., Hardesty, M., Banta, R., White, A., Noone, D., Wolfe, D., & Schnell, R. (2014). A new look at methane and nonmethane hydrocarbon emissions from oil and natural gas operations in the Colorado Denver-Julesburg Basin. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 119, 6836–6852. https://doi.org/10.1002/2013JD021272
Phillips-Smith, C., Jeong, C.-H., Healy, R. M., Dabek-Zlotorzynska, E., Celo, V., Brook, J. R., & Evans, G. (2017). Sources of particulate matter in the Athabasca oil sands region: Investigation through a comparison of trace element measurement methodologies. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions, 17(15), 9435–9449. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-17-9435-2017
Pusede, S. E., & Cohen, R. C. (2012). On the observed response of ozone to NO x and VOC reactivity reductions in San Joaquin Valley California 1995–present. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 12(18), 8323–8339. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-12-8323-2012
Rappenglück, B., Ackermann, L., Alvarez, S., Golovko, J., Buhr, M., Field, R. A., Soltis, J., Montague, D. C., Hauze, B., Adamson, S., Risch, D., Wilkerson, G., Bush, D., Stoeckenius, T., & Keslar, C. (2014). Strong wintertime ozone events in the Upper Green River basin, Wyoming. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 14(10), 4909–4934. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-4909-2014
Richter, D., Weibring, P., Walega, J. G., Fried, A., Spuler, S. M., & Taubman, M. S. (2015). Compact highly sensitive multi-species airborne mid-IR spectrometer. Applied Physics B, 119(1), 119–131. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00340-015-6038-8
Roest, G., & Schade, G. (2017). Quantifying alkane emissions in the Eagle Ford Shale using boundary layer enhancement. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 17(18), 11,163–11,176. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-17-11163-2017
Roscioli, J. R., Yacovitch, T. I., Floerchinger, C., Mitchell, A. L., Tkacik, D. S., Subramanian, R., Martinez, D. M., Vaughn, T. L., Williams, L., Zimmerle, D., Robinson, A. L., Herndon, S. C., & Marchese, A. J. (2015). Measurements of methane emissions from natural gas gathering facilities and processing plants: Measurement methods. Atmospheric Measurement Techniques, 8(5), 2017–2035. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-8-2017-2015
Rossabi, S., & Helmig, D. (2018). Changes in atmospheric butanes and pentanes and their isomeric ratios in the continental United States. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 123, 3772–3790. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017jd027709
Sangwan, M., Yan, C., Chesnokov, E. N., & Krasnoperov, L. N. (2015). Reaction CH 3 + CH 3 --> C 2 H 6 studied over the 292–714 K temperature and 1-100 bar pressure ranges. The Journal of Physical Chemistry, 119(28), 7847–7857. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpca.5b01276
Schauer, J. J., Kleeman, M. J., Cass, G. R., & Simoneit, B. R. (2002). Measurement of emissions from air pollution sources. 5. C-1−C-32 organic compounds from gasoline-powered motor vehicles. Environmental Science & Technology, 36(6), 1169–1180. https://doi.org/10.1021/es0108077
Schauffler, S., Atlas, E. L., Navarro, M. A., Pan, L., Blake, D. R., Blake, N. J., Kinnison, D. E., Meinardi, S., Lueb, R., Zhu, X., & Pope, L. (2014). Organic halogen and hydrocarbon distributions during SEAC 4 RS measured from the ER-2 and DC-8. San Francisco, CA: American Geophysical Union
Sherwen, T., Schmidt, J. A., Evans, M. J., Carpenter, L. J., Großmann, K., Eastham, S. D., Jacob, D. J., Dix, B., Koenig, T. K., Sinreich, R., Ortega, I., Volkamer, R., Saiz-Lopez, A., Prados-Roman, C., Mahajan, A. S., & Ordóñez, C. (2016). Global impacts of tropospheric halogens (Cl, Br, I) on oxidants and composition in GEOS-Chem. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 16(18), 12,239–12,271. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-12239-2016
Simon, H., Beck, L., Bhave, P. V., Divita, F., Hsu, Y., Luecken, D., Mobley, J. D., Pouliot, G. A., Reff, A., Sarwar, G., & Strum, M. (2010). The development and uses of EPA's SPECIATE database. Atmospheric Pollution Research, 1(4), 196–206. https://doi.org/10.5094/apr.2010.026
Simpson, I. J., Akagi, S. K., Barletta, B., Blake, N. J., Choi, Y., Diskin, G. S., Fried, A., Fuelberg, H. E., Meinardi, S., Rowland, F. S., Vay, S. A., Weinheimer, A. J., Wennberg, P. O., Wiebring, P., Wisthaler, A., Yang, M., Yokelson, R. J., & Blake, D. R. (2011). Boreal forest fire emissions in fresh Canadian smoke plumes: C1–C10 volatile organic compounds (VOCs), CO 2 , CO, NO 2 , NO, HCN and CH 3 CN. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 11(13), 6445–6463. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-6445-2011
Simpson, I. J., Blake, N. J., Barletta, B., Diskin, G. S., Fuelberg, H. E., Gorham, K., Huey, L. G., Meinardi, S., Rowland, F. S., Vay, S. A., Weinheimer, A. J., Yang, M., & Blake, D. R. (2010). Characterization of trace gases measured over Alberta oil sands mining operations: 76 speciated C 2 –C 10 volatile organic compounds (VOCs), CO 2 , CH 4 , CO, NO, NO 2 , NO y , O 3 and SO 2 . Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 10(23), 11,931–11,954. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-11931-2010
Simpson, I. J., Sulbaek Andersen, M. P., Meinardi, S., Bruhwiler, L., Blake, N. J., Helmig, D., Rowland, F. S., & Blake, D. R. (2012). Long-term decline of global atmospheric ethane concentrations and implications for methane. Nature, 488(7412), 490–494. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11342
Swarthout, R. F., Russo, R. S., Zhou, Y., Hart, A. H., & Sive, B. C. (2013). Volatile organic compound distributions during the NACHTT campaign at the Boulder Atmospheric Observatory: Influence of urban and natural gas sources. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 118, 10,614–10,637. https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrd.50722
Swarthout, R. F., Russo, R. S., Zhou, Y., Miller, B. M., Mitchell, B., Horsman, E., Lipsky, E., McCabe, D. C., Baum, E., & Sive, B. C. (2015). Impact of Marcellus Shale natural gas development in Southwest Pennsylvania on volatile organic compound emissions and regional air quality. Environmental Science & Technology, 49(5), 3175–3184. https://doi.org/10.1021/es504315f
TCEQ (2012). Texas Commission on Environmental Quality, Texas, USA. Retrieved from https://www.tceq.texas.gov/
Thompson, C. R., Hueber, J., & Helmig, D. (2014). Influence of oil and gas emissions on ambient atmospheric non-methane hydrocarbons in residential areas of northeastern Colorado. Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene, 2, 000035. https://doi.org/10.12952/journal.elementa.000035
Thompson, T. M., Shepherd, D., Stacy, A., Barna, M. G., & Schichtel, B. A. (2017). Modeling to evaluate contribution of oil and gas emissions to air pollution. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 67(4), 445–461. https://doi.org/10.1080/10962247.2016.1251508
Thynne, J. C. J. (1962). Reactions of alkyl radicals. Part 1.—Methyl radical photosensitized decomposition of ethyl formate. Transactions of the Faraday Society, 58(0), 676–684. https://doi.org/10.1039/tf9625800676
Tzompa-Sosa, Z. A., Mahieu, E., Franco, B., Keller, C. A., Turner, A. J., Helmig, D., Fried, A., Richter, D., Weibring, P., Walega, J., Yacovitch, T. I., Herndon, S. C., Blake, D. R., Hase, F., Hannigan, J. W., Conway, S., Strong, K., Schneider, M., & Fischer, E. V. (2017). Revisiting global fossil fuel and biofuel emissions of ethane. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 122, 2493–2512. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JD025767
U.S. Energy Information Administration (2017). U.S. Natural gas gross withdrawals and production, Edited by Energy Information Administration
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2009). Municipal solid waste landfills, edited by A. E. F. a. Quantification
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2016a). In O. O. A. A. R. A. O. O. A. Q. P. A. Standards, & U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (Eds.), Control techniques guidelines for the oil and natural gas industry. North Carolina, USA: Research Triangle Park
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2016b). Technical support document: Preparation of emissions inventories for the version 6.3, 2011 emissions modeling platform, Edited by Environmental Protection Agency
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2017). National Emissions Inventory 2011, version 6.3ek. Washington, DC: Environmental Protection Agency
Vinciguerra, T., Yao, S., Dadzie, J., Chittams, A., Deskins, T., Ehrman, S., & Dickerson, R. R. (2015). Regional air quality impacts of hydraulic fracturing and shale natural gas activity: Evidence from ambient VOC observations. Atmospheric Environment, 110, 144–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.03.056
Voulgarakis, A., Naik, V., Lamarque, J. F., Shindell, D. T., Young, P. J., Prather, M. J., Wild, O., Field, R. D., Bergmann, D., Cameron-Smith, P., Cionni, I., Collins, W. J., Dalsøren, S. B., Doherty, R. M., Eyring, V., Faluvegi, G., Folberth, G. A., Horowitz, L. W., Josse, B., MacKenzie, I. A., Nagashima, T., Plummer, D. A., Righi, M., Rumbold, S. T., Stevenson, D. S., Strode, S. A., Sudo, K., Szopa, S., & Zeng, G. (2013). Analysis of present day and future OH and methane lifetime in the ACCMIP simulations. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 13(5), 2563–2587. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-2563-2013
Warneke, C., Geiger, F., Edwards, P. M., Dube, W., Pétron, G., Kofler, J., Zahn, A., Brown, S. S., Graus, M., Gilman, J. B., Lerner, B. M., Peischl, J., Ryerson, T. B., de Gouw, J. A., & Roberts, J. M. (2014). Volatile organic compound emissions from the oil and natural gas industry in the Uintah Basin, Utah: Oil and gas well pad emissions compared to ambient air composition. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 14(20), 10,977–10,988. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-10977-2014
Wiacek, A., Taylor, J. R., Strong, K., Saari, R., Kerzenmacher, T. E., Jones, N. B., & Griffith, D. W. T. (2007). Ground-based solar absorption FTIR spectroscopy: Characterization of retrievals and first results from a novel optical design instrument at a new NDACC Complementary Station. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology, 24(3), 432–448. https://doi.org/10.1175/jtech1962.1
Wofsy, S. C., Daube, B., Jimenez, R., Kort, E., Pittman, J. V., Park, S., Commane, R., Xiang, B., Santoni, G., Jacob, D. J., Fisher, J. A., Pickett-Heaps, C. A., Wang, H., Wecht, K. J., Wang, Q., Stephens, B. B., Shertz, S., Watt, A., Romashkin, P., Campos, T., Haggerty, J., Cooper, W. A., Rogers, D. C., Beaton, S., Hendershot, R., Elkins, J. W., Fahey, D. W., Gao, R.-S., Schwarz, J. P., Moor, F., Montzka, S. A., Perring, A. E., Hurst, D., Miller, B. R., Sweeney, C., Oltmans, S. J., Hintsa, E., Nance, D., Dutton, G. S., Watts, L. A., Spackman, J. R., Rosenlof, K. H., Rosenlof, K. H., Ray, E., Hall, B., Zondlo, M., Diao, M., Keeling, R. F., Bent, J., Atlas, E., & Mahoney, M. J. (2012). HIPPO combined discrete flask and GC sample GHG, halo-, hydrocarbon data (R_20121129), edited by O. R. N. L. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, U.S.A
Xiao, Y. P., Logan, J. A., Jacob, D. J., Hudman, R. C., Yantosca, R. M., & Blake, D. R. (2008). Global budget of ethane and regional constraints on US sources. Journal of Geophysical Research, 113, D21306. https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JD009415
Yevich, R., & Logan, J. A. (2003). An assessment of biofuel use and burning of agricultural waste in the developing world. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 17(4), 1095. https://doi.org/10.1029/2002GB001952
Zielinska, B., Campbell, D., & Samburova, V. (2014). Impact of emissions from natural gas production facilities on ambient air quality in the Barnett Shale area: A pilot study. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 64(12), 1369–1383. https://doi.org/10.1080/10962247.2014.954735
